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the greatest height。 The excitement； we may well suppose； would have
been peculiarly intense at the annual election of Tribunes。 On such
occasions there can be little doubt that the great families did all that could
be done； by threats and caresses； to break the union of the Plebeians。 That
union； however； proved indissoluble。 At length the good cause triumphed。
The Licinian laws were carried。 Lucius Sextius was the first Plebeian
Consul； Caius Licinius the third。
The results of this great change were singularly happy and glorious。
Two centuries of prosperity； harmony； and victory followed the
reconciliation of the orders。 Men who remembered Rome engaged in
waging petty wars almost within sight of the Capitol lived to see her the
mistress of Italy。 While the disabilities of the Plebeians continued； she was
scarcely able to maintain her ground against the Volscians and Hernicans。
When those disabilities were removed； she rapidly became more than a
match for Carthage and Macedon。
During the great Licinian contest the Plebeian poets were； doubtless；
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not silent。 Even in modern times songs have been by no means without
influence on public affairs； and we may therefore infer that； in a society
where printing was unknown and where books were rare； a pathetic or
humorous party…ballad must have produced effects such as we can but
faintly conceive。 It is certain that satirical poems were common at Rome
from a very early period。 The rustics； who lived at a distance from the seat
of government； and took little part in the strife of factions； gave vent to
their petty local animosities in coarse Fescennine verse。 The lampoons of
the city were doubtless of a higher order； and their sting was early felt by
the nobility。 For in the Twelve Tables； long before the time of the Licinian
laws； a severe punishment was denounced against the citizen who should
compose or recite verses reflecting on another。 Satire is； indeed； the only
sort of composition in which the Latin poets； whose works have come
down to us； were not mere imitators of foreign models； and it is therefore
the only sort of composition in which they have never been rivalled。 It was
not； like their tragedy； their comedy； their epic and lyric poetry； a hothouse
plant which； in return for assiduous and skilful culture； gave only scanty
and sickly fruits。 It was hardy and full of sap； and in all the various juices
which it yielded might be distinguished the flavor of the Ausonian soil。
‘‘Satire；'' said Quinctilian； with just pride； ‘‘is all our own。'' Satire sprang；
in truth； naturally from the constitution of the Roman government and
from the spirit of the Roman people； and； though at length subjected to
metrical rules derived from Greece； retained to the last an essentially
Roman character。 Lucilius was the earliest satirist whose works were held
in esteem under the Caesars。 But many years before Lucilius was born； N
鎣 ius had been flung into a dungeon； and guarded there with
circumstances of unusual rigor； on account of the bitter lines in which he
had attacked the great Caecilian family。 The genius and spirit of the
Roman satirists survived the liberty of their country； and were not
extinguished by the cruel despotism of the Julian and Flavian Emperors。
The great poet who told the story of Domitian's turbot was the legitimate
successor of those forgotten minstrels whose songs animated the factions
of the infant Republic。
Those minstrels； as Niebuhr has remarked； appear to have generally
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taken the popular side。 We can hardly be mistaken in supposing that； at the
great crisis of the civil conflict； they employed themselves in versifying all
the most powerful and virulent speeches of the Tribunes； and in heaping
abuse on the leaders of the aristocracy。 Every personal defect； every
domestic scandal； every tradition dishonorable to a noble house； would be
sought out； brought into notice； and exaggerated。 The illustrious head of
the aristocratical party； Marcus Furius Camillus； might perhaps be； in
some measure； protected by his venerable age and by the memory of his
great services to the state。 But Appius Claudius Crassus enjoyed no such
immunity。 He was descended from a long line of ancestors distinguished
by their haughty demeanor； and by the inflexibility with which they had
withstood all the demands of the Plebeian order。 While the political
conduct and the deportment of the Claudian nobles drew upon them the
fiercest public hatred； they were accused of wanting； if any credit is due to
the early history of Rome； a class of qualities which； in a military
commonwealth； is sufficient to cover a multitude of offences。 The chiefs
of the family appear to have been eloquent； versed in civil business； and
learned after the fashion of their age； but in war they were not
distinguished by skill or valor。 Some of them； as if conscious where their
weakness lay； had； when filling the highest magistracies； taken internal
administration as their department of public business； and left the military
command to their colleagues。 One of them had been entrusted with an
army； and had failed ignominiously。 None of them had been honored with
a triumph。 None of them had achieved any martial exploit； such as those
by which Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus； Titus Quinctius Capitolinus；
Aulus Cornelius Cossus； and； above all； the great Camillus； had extorted
the reluctant esteem of the multitude。 During the Licinian conflict； Appius
Claudius Crassus signalized himself by the ability and severity with which
he harangued against the two great agitators。 He would naturally； therefore；
be the favorite mark of the Plebeian satirists； nor would they have been at
a loss to find a point on which he was open to attack。
His grandfather； called； like himself； Appius Claudius； had left a name
as much detested as that Sextus Tarquinius。 This elder Appius had been
Consul more than seventy years before the introduction of the Licinian