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ent or by the State governments； but a careful study of the constitution cannot fail to show that the division of powers is the division or distinction between the public and general relations and interests； rights and duties of the people； and their private and particular relations and interests； rights and duties。 As these two classes of relations and interests； rights and duties； though distinguishable； are really inseparable in nature； it follows that the two governments are essential to the existence of a complete government； or to the existence of a real government in its plenitude and integrity。 Left to either alone； the people would have only an incomplete； an initial； or inchoate government。 The General government is the complement of the State governments； and the 267 State governments are the complement of the General government。
The consideration of the powers denied by the convention to the General government and to the State governments respectively； will lead to the same conclusion。 To the General government is denied expressly or by necessary implication all jurisdiction in matters of private rights and interests； and to the State government is denied all jurisdiction in right； or interests which extend； as has been said； beyond the boundaries of the State。 〃No State shall enter into any treaty； alliance； or confederation； grant letters of marque and reprisal； coin money； emit bills of credit； make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in the payment of debts； pass any bill of attainder； ex post facto law； or law impairing the obligation of contracts； or grant any title of nobility。 No State shall； without the consent of Congress； lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports； except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports and exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States； and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of Congress。 No State shall； with… 268 out the consent of Congress； lay any duty of tonnage； keep troops or ships…of…war in time of peace； enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power； or engage in war； unless actually invaded； or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay。〃
The powers denied to the States in some matters which are rather private and particular； such as bills of attainder； ex post facto laws； laws impairing the obligation of contracts； granting titles of nobility； are denied equally to the General government。 There is evidently a profound logic in the constitution； and there is not a single provision in it that is arbitrary； or anomalous； or that does not harmonize dialectically with the whole； and with the real constitution of the American people。 At first sight the reservation to the State of the appointment of the officers of the militia might seem an anomaly； but as the whole subject of internal police belongs to the State； it should have some military force at its command。 The subject of bankruptcies； also； might seem to be more properly within the province of the State； and so it would be if commerce between the several States had not been placed under Congress； or if trade were confined to the citizens 269 of the State and within its boundaries； but as such is not the case； it was necessary to place it under the General government； in order that laws on the subject might be uniform throughout the Union； and that the citizens of all the States； and foreigners trading with them； should be placed on an equal footing； and have the same remedies。 The subject follows naturally in the train of commerce； for bankruptcies； as understood at the time； were confined to the mercantile class； bankers； and brokers； and since the regulation of commerce； foreign and inter…state； was to be placed under the sole charge of the General government； it was necessary that bankruptcy should be included。 The subject of patents is placed under the General government； though the patent is a private right； because it was the will of the convention that the patent should be good in all the States； as affording more encouragement to science and the useful arts than if good only within a single State； or if the power were left to each State to recognize or not patents granted by another。 The right created； though private in its nature； is Yet general or common to all the States in its enjoyment or exercise。
The division of the powers of government between a General government and particular 270 governments； rendered possible and practicable by the original constitution of the people themselves； as one people existing and acting through State organizations； is the American method of guarding against the undue centralism to which Roman imperialism inevitably tends； and it is far simpler and more effective than any of the European systems of mixed governments； which seek their end by organizing an antagonism of interests or classes。 The American method demands no such antagonism； no neutralizing of one social force by another； but avails itself of all the forces of society； organizes them dialectically； not antagonistically； and thus protects with； equal efficiency both public authority and private rights。 The General government can never oppress the people as individuals； or abridge their private rights or personal freedom and independence； because these are not within its jurisdiction； but are placed in charge； within each State； of the State government； which； within its sphere； governs as supremely as the General government： the State governments cannot weaken the public authority of the nation or oppress the people in their general rights and interests； for these are withdrawn from State jurisdiction； and placed under charge of a Gen… 271 eral government； which； in its sphere； governs as supremely as the State government。 There is no resort to a system of checks and balances； there is no restraint on power； and no systematic distrust of power； but simply a division of powers between two co…ordinate governments； distinct but inseparable； moving in distinct spheres； but in the same direction； or to a common end。 The system is no invention of man； is no creation of the convention； but is given us by Providence in the living constitution of the American people。 The merit of the statesmen of 1787 is that they did not destroy or deface the work of Providence； but accepted it； and organized the government in harmony with the real orders the real elements given them。 They suffered themselves in all their positive substantial work to be governed by reality； not by theories and speculations。 In this they proved themselves statesmen； and their work survives； and the republic； laugh as sciolists may； is； for the present and future； the model republicas much so as was Rome in her day； and it is not simply national pride nor American self…conceit that pronounces its establishment the beginning of a new and more advanced order