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re all the effective power is in the aldermen； common council； and heads of departments。 Except in name he was little else than a pageant。 The kings； no doubt； labored to develop and extend the royal element of the constitution。 This was natural； and it was equally natural that they should be resisted by the patricians。 Hence when the Tarquins； or Etruscan dynasty； undertook to be kings in fact as well as in name； and seemed likely to succeed； the patricians expelled them； and supplied their place by two consuls annually elected。 Here was a modification； but no real change of the constitution。 The effective Power； as before； remained in the senate。
But there was from early times a plebeian element in the population of the city； though forming at first no part of the political people。 Their origin is not very certain； nor their original position in the city。 Historians give different accounts of them。 But that they should； as they increased in numbers； wealth； 168 and importance； demand admission into the political society； religious or solemn marriage； a voice in the government； and the faculty of holding civil and military offices； was only in the order of regular development。 At first the patricians fought them； and； failing to subdue them by force； effected a compromise； and bought up their leaders。 The concession which followed of the tribunitial veto was only a further development。 By that veto the plebeians gained no initiative； no positive power； indeed； but their tribunes； by interposing it； could stop the proceedings of the government。 They could not propose the measures they liked； but they could prevent the legal adoption of measures they dislikeda faculty Mr。 Calhoun asserted for the several States of the American Union in his doctrine of nullification； or State veto； as he called it。 It was simply an obstructive power。
But from a power to obstruct legislative action to the power to originate or propose it； and force the senate to adopt it through fear of the veto of measures the patricians had at heart； was only a still further development。 This gained； the exclusively patrician constitution had disappeared； and Marius； the head of a great plebeian house； could be elected consul 169 and the plebeians in turn threaten to become predominant； which Sylla or Sulla； as dictator； seeing； tried in vain to prevent。 The dictator was provided for in the original constitution。 Retain the dictatorship for a time； strengthen the plebeian element by ruthless proscriptions of patricians and by recruits from the provinces； unite the tribunitial； pontifical； and military powers in the imperator designated by the army； all elements existing in the constitution from an early day； and already developed in the Roman state； and you have the imperial constitution； which retained to the last the senate and consuls； though with less and less practical power。 These changes are very great； but are none of them radical； dating from the recognition of the plebs as pertaining to the Roman people。 They are normal developments； not corruptions； and the transition from the consular republic to the imperial was unquestionably a real social and political progress。 And yet the Roman people； had they chosen； could have given a different direction to the developments of their constitution。 There was Providence in the course of events； but no fatalism。
Sulla was a true patrician； a blind partisan of the past。 He sought to arrest the plebeian development led by Marius； and to restore the 170 exclusively patrician government。 But it was too late。 His proscriptions； confiscations； butcheries； unheard…of cruelties which anticipated and surpassed those of the French Revolution of 1793； availed nothing。 The Marian or plebeian movement； apparently checked for a moment； resumed its march with renewed vigor under Julius； and triumphed at Pharsalia。 In vain Cicero； only accidentally associated with the patrician party； which distrusted himin vain Cicero declaims； Cato scolds； or parades his impractical virtues； Brutus and Cassius seize the assassin's dagger； and strike to the earth 〃the foremost man of all the world；〃 the plebeian cause moves on with resistless force； triumphs anew at Philippi； and young Octavius avenges the murder of his uncle； and proves to the world that the assassination of a ruler is a blunder as well as a crime。 In vain does Mark Antony desert the movement； rally Egypt and the barbaric East； and seek to transfer the seat of empire from the Tiber to the banks of the Nile or the Orontes； plebeian and imperial Rome wins a final victory at Actium； and definitively secures the empire of the civilized world to the West。
Thus far the developments were normal； and advanced civilization。 But Rome still retained 171 the barbaric element of slavery in her bosom； and had conquered more barbaric nations than she had assimilated。 These nations she at first governed as tributary states； with their own constitutions and national chiefs； afterwards as Roman provinces； by her own proconsuls and prefects。 When the emperors threw open the gates of the city to the provincials； and conceded them the rights and privileges of Roman citizens； they introduced not only a foreign element into the state； destitute of Roman patriotism； but the barbaric and despotic elements retained by the conquered nations as yet only partially assimilated。 These elements became germs of anti…republican developments； rather of corruptions； and prepared the downfall of the empire。 Doubtless these corruptions might have been arrested； and would have been； if Roman patriotism had survived the changes effected in the Roman population by the concession of Roman citizenship to provincials； but it did not； and they were favored as time went on by the emperors themselves； and more especially by Dioclesian； a real barbarian； who hated Rome； and by Constantine； surnamed the Great； a real despot； who converted the empire from a republican to a despotic empire。 Rome fell from the force of barba… 172 rism developed from within； far more than from the force of the barbarians hovering on her frontiers and invading her provinces。
The law of all possible developments is in the providential or congenital constitution； but these possible developments are many and various； and the reason and free…will of the nation as well as of individuals are operative in determining which of them shall be adopted。 The nation； under the direction of wise and able statesmen who understood their age and country； who knew how to discern between normal developments and barbaric corruptions； placed at the head of affairs in season； might have saved Rome from her fate； eliminated the barbaric and assimilated the foreign elements； and preserved Rome as a Christian and republican empire to this day； and saved the civilized world from the ten centuries of barbarism which followed her conquest by the barbarians of the North。 But it rarely happens