a history of science-1-第39章

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ed　by　inspecting　the　entrails　of　a　fowl。　These　chance　bits　of　biography　are　weather…　vanes　of　the　mind　of　Democritus。　They　tend　to　substantiate　our　conviction　that　Democritus　must　rank　below　Anaxagoras　as　a　devotee　of　pure　science。　But；　after　all；　such　comparisons　and　estimates　as　this　are　utterly　futile。　The　essential　fact　for　us　is　that　here；　in　the　fifth　century　before　our　era；　we　find　put　forward　the　most　penetrating　guess　as　to　the　constitution　of　matter　that　the　history　of　ancient　thought　has　to　present　to　us。　In　one　direction；　the　avenue　of　progress　is　barred；　there　will　be　no　farther　step　that　way　till　we　come　down　the　centuries　to　the　time　of　Dalton。

HIPPOCRATES　AND　GREEK　MEDICINE　These　studies　of　the　constitution　of　matter　have　carried　us　to　the　limits　of　the　field　of　scientific　imagination　in　antiquity；　let　us　now　turn　sharply　and　consider　a　department　of　science　in　which　theory　joins　hands　with　practicality。　Let　us　witness　the　beginnings　of　scientific　therapeutics。　Medicine　among　the　early　Greeks；　before　the　time　of　Hippocrates；　was　a　crude　mixture　of　religion；　necromancy；　and　mysticism。　Temples　were　erected　to　the　god　of　medicine；　aesculapius；　and　sick　persons　made　their　way；　or　were　carried；　to　these　temples；　where　they　sought　to　gain　the　favor　of　the　god　by　suitable　offerings；　and　learn　the　way　to　regain　their　health　through　remedies　or　methods　revealed　to　them　in　dreams　by　the　god。　When　the　patient　had　been　thus　cured；　he　placed　a　tablet　in　the　temple　describing　his　sickness；　and　telling　by　what　method　the　god　had　cured　him。　He　again　made　suitable　offerings　at　the　temple；　which　were　sometimes　in　the　form　of　gold　or　silver　representations　of　the　diseased　organa　gold　or　silver　model　of　a　heart；　hand；　foot；　etc。　Nevertheless；　despite　this　belief　in　the　supernatural；　many　drugs　and　healing　lotions　were　employed；　and　the　Greek　physicians　possessed　considerable　skill　in　dressing　wounds　and　bandaging。　But　they　did　not　depend　upon　these　surgical　dressings　alone；　using　with　them　certain　appropriate　prayers　and　incantations；　recited　over　the　injured　member　at　the　time　of　applying　the　dressings。　Even　the　very　early　Greeks　had　learned　something　of　anatomy。　The　daily　contact　with　wounds　and　broken　bones　must　of　necessity　lead　to　a　crude　understanding　of　anatomy　in　general。　The　first　Greek　anatomist；　however；　who　is　recognized　as　such；　is　said　to　have　been　Alcmaeon。　He　is　said　to　have　made　extensive　dissections　of　the　lower　animals；　and　to　have　described　many　hitherto　unknown　structures；　such　as　the　optic　nerve　and　the　Eustachian　canalthe　small　tube　leading　into　the　throat　from　the　ear。　He　is　credited　with　many　unique　explanations　of　natural　phenomena；　such　as；　for　example；　the　explanation　that　〃hearing　is　produced　by　the　hollow　bone　behind　the　ear；　for　all　hollow　things　are　sonorous。〃　He　was　a　rationalist；　and　he　taught　that　the　brain　is　the　organ　of　mind。　The　sources　of　our　information　about　his　work；　however；　are　unreliable。　Democedes；　who　lived　in　the　sixth　century　B。C。；　is　the　first　physician　of　whom　we　have　any　trustworthy　history。　We　learn　from　Herodotus　that　he　came　from　Croton　to　aegina；　where；　in　recognition　of　his　skill；　he　was　appointed　medical　officer　of　the　city。　From　aegina　he　was　called　to　Athens　at　an　increased　salary；　and　later　was　in　charge　of　medical　affairs　in　several　other　Greek　cities。　He　was　finally　called　to　Samos　by　the　tyrant　Polycrates；　who　reigned　there　from　about　536　to　522　B。C。　But　on　the　death　of　Polycrates；　who　was　murdered　by　the　Persians；　Democedes　became　a　slave。　His　fame　as　a　physician；　however；　had　reached　the　ears　of　the　Persian　monarch；　and　shortly　after　his　capture　he　was　permitted　to　show　his　skill　upon　King　Darius　himself。　The　Persian　monarch　was　suffering　from　a　sprained　ankle；　which　his　Egyptian　surgeons　had　been　unable　to　cure。　Democedes　not　only　cured　the　injured　member　but　used　his　influence　in　saving　the　lives　of　his　Egyptian　rivals；　who　had　been　condemned　to　death　by　the　king。　At　another　time　he　showed　his　skill　by　curing　the　queen；　who　was　suffering　from　a　chronic　abscess　of　long　standing。　This　so　pleased　the　monarch　that　he　offered　him　as　a　reward　anything　he　might　desire；　except　his　liberty。　But　the　costly　gifts　of　Darius　did　not　satisfy　him　so　long　as　he　remained　a　slave；　and　determined　to　secure　his　freedom　at　any　cost；　he　volunteered　to　lead　some　Persian　spies　into　his　native　country；　promising　to　use　his　influence　in　converting　some　of　the　leading　men　of　his　nation　to　the　Persian　cause。　Laden　with　the　wealth　that　had　been　heaped　upon　him　by　Darius；　he　set　forth　upon　his　mission；　but　upon　reaching　his　native　city　of　Croton　he　threw　off　his　mask；　renounced　his　Persian　mission；　and　became　once　more　a　free　Greek。　While　the　story　of　Democedes　throws　little　light　upon　the　medical　practices　of　the　time；　it　shows　that　paid　city　medical　officers　existed　in　Greece　as　early　as　the　fifth　and　sixth　centuries　B。C。　Even　then　there　were　different　〃schools〃　of　medicine；　whose　disciples　disagreed　radically　in　their　methods　of　treating　diseases；　and　there　were　also　specialists　in　certain　diseases；　quacks；　and　charlatans。　Some　physicians　depended　entirely　upon　external　lotions　for　healing　all　disorders；　others　were　〃hydrotherapeutists〃　or　〃bath…　physicians〃；　while　there　were　a　host　of　physicians　who　administered　a　great　variety　of　herbs　and　drugs。　There　were　also　magicians　who　pretended　to　heal　by　sorcery；　and　great　numbers　of　bone…setters；　oculists；　and　dentists。　Many　of　the　wealthy　physicians　had　hospitals；　or　clinics；　where　patients　were　operated　upon　and　treated。　They　were　not　hospitals　in　our　modern　understanding　of　the　term；　but　were　more　like　dispensaries；　where　patients　were　treated　temporarily；　but　were　not　allowed　to　remain　for　any　length　of　time。　Certain　communities　established　and　supported　these　dispensaries　for　the　care　of　the　poor。　But　anything　approaching　a　rational　system　of　medicine　was　not　established；　until　Hippocrates　of　Cos；　the　〃father　of　medicine；〃　came　upon　the　scene。　In　an　age　that　produced　Phidias；　Lysias；　Herodotus；　Sophocles；　and　Pericles；　it　seems　but　natural　that　the　medical　art　should　find　an　exponent　who　would　rise　above　superstitious　dogmas　and　lay　the　foundation　for　a　medical　science。　His　rejection　of　the　supernatural　alone　stamps　the　greatness　of　his　genius。　But；　besides　this；　he　introduced　more　detailed　observation　of　diseases；　and　demonstrated　the　importance　that　attaches　to　prognosis。　Hippocrates　was　born　at　Cos；　about　460　B。C。；　but　spent　most　of　his　life　at　Larissa；　in　Thessaly。　He　was　educated　as　a　physician　by　his　father；　and　travelled　extensively　as　an　itinerant　practitioner　for　several　years。　His　travels　in　different　climates　and　among　many　different　people　undoubtedly　tended　to　sharpen　his　keen　sense　of　observation。　He　was　a　practical　physician　as　well　as　a　theorist；　and；　withal；　a　clear　and　concise　writer。　〃Life　is　short；〃　he　says；　〃opportunity　fleeting；　judgment　difficult；　treatment　easy；　but　treatment　after　thought　is　proper　and　profitable。〃　His　knowledge　of　anatomy　was　necessarily　very　imperfect；　and　was　gained　largely　from　his　predecessors；　to　whom　he　gave　full　credit。　Dissections　of　the　human　body　were　forbidden　him；　and　he　was　obliged　to