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for this purpose。 It seems probable that under the strong influence of Taddeo there was an occasional dissection at Bologna； but it was not until Mundinus （professor from 1306 to 1326） took the chair that the study of anatomy became popular。 The bodies were usually those of condemned criminals； but in the year 1319 there is a record of a legal procedure against four medical students for body…snatchingthe first record； as far as I know； of this gruesome practice。 In 1316； Mundinus issued his work on anatomy； which served as a text…book for more than two hundred years。 He quotes from Galen the amusing reasons why a man should write a book： 〃Firstly； to satisfy his own friends； secondly； to exercise his best mental powers； and thirdly； to be saved from the oblivion incident to old age。〃 Scores of manuscripts of his work must have existed； but they are now excessively rare in Italy。 The book was first printed at Pavia in 1478； in a small folio without figures。 It was very often reprinted in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。 The quaint illustration shows us the mediaeval method of teaching anatomy： the lecturer sitting on a chair reading from Galen； while a barber surgeon； or an 〃Ostensor；〃 opens the cavities of the body。
I have already referred to the study of medicine by women at Salernum。 Their names are also early met with in the school of Bologna。 Mundinus is said to have had a valuable assistant； a young girl； Alessandra Giliani； an enthusiastic dissector； who was the first to practice the injection of the blood vessels with colored liquids。 She died； consumed by her labors； at the early age of nineteen； and her monument is still to be seen。
Bologna honored its distinguished professors with magnificent tombs； sixteen or seventeen of which； in a wonderful state of preservation； may still be seen in the Civic Museum。 That of Mundinus also existsa sepulchral bas…relief on the wall of the Church of San Vitale at Bologna。＇19＇
＇19＇ For these figures and for points relating to the old school at Bologna see F。 G。 Cavezza： Le Scuole dell' antico Studio Bolognese； Milano； 1896。
The other early mediaeval university of special interest in medicine is that of Montpellier。 With it are connected three teachers who have left great names in our storyArnold of Villanova； Henri de Mondeville and Guy de Chauliac。 The city was very favorably situated not far from the Spanish border； and the receding tide of the Arab invasion in the eighth century had left a strong Arabic influence in that province。 The date of the origin of the university is uncertain； but there were teachers of medicine there in the twelfth century； though it was not until 1289 that it was formally founded by a papal bull。
Arnold of Villanova was one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages。 He had travelled much； was deeply read in Arabic medicine and was also a student of law and of philosophy。 He was an early editor of the Regimen Sanitatis； and a strong advocate of diet and hygiene。 His views on disease were largely those of the Arabian physicians； and we cannot see that he himself made any very important contribution to our knowledge； but he was a man of strong individuality and left an enduring mark on mediaeval medicine； as one may judge from the fact that among the first hundred medical books printed there were many associated with his name。 He was constantly in trouble with the Church； though befriended by the Popes on account of his medical knowledge。 There is a Bull of Clement V asking the bishops to search for a medical book by Arnold dedicated to himself； but not many years later his writings were condemned as heretical。
In Henri de Mondeville we have the typical mediaeval surgeon； and we know his work now very thoroughly from the editions of his 〃Anatomy〃 and 〃Surgery〃 edited by Pagel （Berlin； 1889…1892）； and the fine French edition by Nicaise （Paris； 1893）。 The dominant Arabic influence is seen in that he quotes so large a proportion of these authors； but he was an independent observer and a practical surgeon of the first rank。 He had a sharp wit and employed a bitter tongue against the medical abuses of his day。 How the Hippocratic humors dominated practice at this time you may see at a glance from the table prepared by Nicaise from the works of de Mondeville。 We have here the whole pathology of the period。
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TABLEAU DES HUMEURS D'APRES H。 DE MONDEVILLE Flegme naturel。 F。 aqueux。 Flegme F。 mucilagineux。 F。 vitreux。 Flegme non naturel F sale。 F。 doux。 F。 pontique； 2 especes。 F。 acide； 2 especes。 Bile naturelle。 Bile B。 citrine。 B。 vitelline Bile non naturelle B。 praline。 B。 aerugineuse。 B。 brulee； 3 especes。 Sang naturel。 non naturel； 5 especes。 Melancolie naturelle。 non naturelle； 5 especes。 =
A still greater name in the history of this school is Guy de Chauliac； whose works have also been edited by Nicaise （Paris； 1890）。 His 〃Surgery〃 was one of the most important text…books of the late Middle Ages。 There are many manuscripts of it； some fourteen editions in the fifteenth century and thirty…eight in the sixteenth； and it continued to be reprinted far into the seventeenth century。 He too was dominated by the surgery of the Arabs； and on nearly every page one reads of the sages Avicenna； Albucasis or Rhazes。 He lays down four conditions necessary for the making of a surgeonthe first is that he must be learned； the second； expert； the third that he should be clever； and the fourth that he should be well disciplined。
You will find a very discerning sketch of the relation of these two men to the history of surgery in the address given at the St。 Louis Congress in 1904 by Sir Clifford Allbutt。＇20＇ They were strong men with practical minds and good hands； whose experience taught them wisdom。 In both there was the blunt honesty that so often characterizes a good surgeon； and I commend to modern surgeons de Mondeville's saying： 〃If you have operated conscientiously on the rich for a proper fee； and on the poor for charity； you need not play the monk； nor make pilgrimages for your soul。〃
＇20＇ Allbutt： Historical Relations of Medicine and Surgery； London； Macmillan Co。； 1905。
One other great mediaeval physician may be mentioned； Peter of Abano （a small town near Padua； famous for its baths）。 He is the first in a long line of distinguished physicians connected with the great school of Padua。 Known as 〃the Conciliator；〃 from his attempt to reconcile the diverse views on philosophy and medicine； he had an extraordinary reputation as a practitioner and author； the persistence of which is well illustrated by the fact that eight of the one hundred and eighty…two medical books printed before 1481 were from hi