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husbands were dead； went crying through the streets and asking
for new ones。 Whereupon the secretary made a second speech in
which he threatened to have them flogged if they did not cease
their lamentations。 We thus find the experiment of admitting the
people to the discussion of public affairs degenerating； either
into appeals to the Moscow mob to sanction； by its consent； acts
of cruelty towards the members of the higher nobility； or into
threats of flogging made to poor weeping women in their
bereavement。
It is difficult to discover in the facts which I have just
related any resemblance to a regular consultation of the people
in Parliament assembled。 The meetings are more like a parody of
the ancient folkmotes； the veche。
The representative system remained unknown to Russia
throughout the sixteenth century。 The Assembly which in 1584
confirmed the right of the eldest son of Ivan； Theodor； to occupy
the Russian throne； although called 〃a parliament〃 by the English
Resident Hoarsav was； according to the same author； composed of
nothing but the chief clergy and members of the higher and lower
nobility。 Another assembly； that of 1585； called to deliberate on
the question of clerical immunities and the necessity for
subjecting the lands of monasteries to general taxation；
contained in its ranks only the higher clergy； the chief officers
of the State； and the members of the Council or Douma。
The Rurik family became extinct on the death of the Czar
Theodor； and a new dynasty had to be chosen。 The higher nobility
seized this opportunity to impose certain limitations on the
exercise of the Sovereign power。 But the nearest candidate to the
throne； Boris Godounov； not being willing to consent to such
limitations； refused to accept the throne offered him by the
boyars and insisted on the necessity of summoning the cities to
decide who should occupy the throne of the Rurik family。 He did
this in the expectation that the people would oppose any measure
limiting the principle of autocracy。 The Sobor； which was called
together according to his wish； was widely different from the
ideal of a truly National Assembly。 Of the 457 members who were
present at its sittings； 83 belonged to the higher clergy； and
338 to the bureaucracy and the higher and lower nobility。 As to
the third estate； it was composed of only 21 hosts； of the head
of the Guild of hosts and of 13 deputies from the rural
districts。 This assembly was presided over by the Patriarch； the
Chief of the Russian clergy；and unanimously expressed itself
favourable to Boris Godounov； to whom the Russian throne was
offered unconditionally。
Representatives of the lower classes of the city of Moscow
appeared in 1605 at the Sobor to which the false Demetrius
entrusted the right of judging the boyar and future Czar；
Basilius Schouisky； on account of a rebellion which he had
instigated。 The Sobor condemned Schouisky to death； but the Czar
Demetrius commuted this punishment to perpetual banishment to the
City of Viatka； whence he soon returned at the gracious order of
the monarch。
The Assembly which in 1606； after the death of the false
Demetrius； elected Schouisky as the Czar of Russia； was not a
Sobor in the true sense of the word； for it was chiefly composed
of the boyars。 The Moscow mob nevertheless sanctioned the
election； and the new Czar was eagerly proclaimed at the
so…called 〃read place；〃 in front of the palace。
This election of Schouisky has some claim to our attention；
as it was the first at which constitutional limits were imposed
on Russian autocracy。 The newly elected Czar had no immediate
relation with the dynasty of Rurik； and was but the equal of the
other boyars。 He was known to be vindictive and to have a great
number of relations and friends who would be ready enough to make
use of his power for their own advantage。 All this induced the
boyars to protect their own interests by the creation of rules
which their nominee was obliged to accept。 According to
Strahlenberg； the well…known author of the 〃historical and
Geographical Description of the Northern and Eastern parts of
Europe and Asia〃 （a book written in German and published at
Stockholm in the year 1703）； the constitutional limitations
imposed were as follows： 〃No new law was to be made and no
innovations were to be introduced in the old legislation without
the consent of the Douma。 （Strahlenberg calls it senatus。） No new
contributions were to be levied unless previously discussed and
accepted by the same Council。〃（6*） These constitutional
limitations as you may easily perceive； were exactly the same as
those established in England by the Magna Charta and the statute
of Edward the First； de tallagio non concedendo； but whilst the
English people entrusted the care of their liberty to the lords；
gentlemen； and citizens in Parliament assembled； the Russian
boyars wanted to keep to themselves the exclusive control of the
sovereign power。 This caused the failure of their constitution；
and was the chief reason why； on the occasion of a new election；
the control of the Constitutional compromise entered into by the
people and the Czar； was no longer entrusted to the Douma of the
boyars； but to the representative Assembly of the whole nation
that is to the Sobor。
Schouisky reigned only a few years。 In 1610 he lost the crown
by the decision of a new Assembly which assumed the title of
Zemski Sobor； although it was chiefly composed of the boyars and
the Moscow mob。 This took place in the middle of July。 A month
later a treaty was signed by the boyars and the chief of the
Polish army； by which Vladislas； son of Sigismund； king of
Poland； was called to the throne of Russia。 Like his predecessor；
the new Czar accepted certain constitutional limitations； amongst
others that of administering justice according to the existing
customs and the rules by law established。 No alterations in the
latter could be made； except with the consent of the Council
（Douma） of 〃the whole land。〃 These last words meant the Zemski
Sobor； the States…General or Parliament of Russia。
I shall not attempt to narrate the events which prevented the
accession of a Polish and Catholic prince to the throne of
Russia。 It will be enough for my purpose to state that the people
and the clergy were unanimous in their dislike to this foreign
and 〃heretical〃 ruler。 The folkmotes； or veches； not only in
Novgorod； but also in those parts where they had hitherto been
quite unknown； as in Kasan； or Nijni Novgorod； entered into
correspondence with each other； local militia united； and an
army； called into existence by the patriotic sentiments of simple
burgesses like Minin； marched from Nijni Novgorod to Moscow；
under the command of Pojarsky。 At the same time a correspondence
was begun with the object of forming a new Sobor； which was to be
a really representative body； composed of delegates sent by all
the estates。 The writs of summons sent out by the head of the
army； Pojarsky； have fortunately been preserved； so that we can
get a clear notion of what was meant at that time by the term
〃General Council of the land；〃 a term employed m