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climbed up； in order to deprive others of the means of climbing up
after him。 In this lies the secret of the cosmopolitical doctrine
of Adam Smith； and of the cosmopolitical tendencies of his great
contemporary William Pitt； and of all his successors in the British
Government administrations。
Any nation which by means of protective duties and restrictions
on navigation has raised her manufacturing power and her navigation
to such a degree of development that no other nation can sustain
free competition with her； can do nothing wiser than to throw away
these ladders of her greatness； to preach to other nations the
benefits of free trade； and to declare in penitent tones that she
has hitherto wandered in the paths of error； and has now for the
first time succeeded in discovering the truth。
William Pitt was the first English statesman who clearly
perceived in what way the cosmopolitical theory of Adam Smith could
be properly made use of； and not in vain did he himself carry about
a copy of the work on the Wealth of Nations。 His speech in 1786；
which was addressed neither to Parliament nor to the nation； but
clearly to the ears of the statesmen of France； who were destitute
of all experience and political insight； and solely intended to
influence the latter in favour of the Eden Treaty； is an excellent
specimen of Smith's style of reasoning。 By nature he said France
was adapted for agriculture and the production of wine； as England
was thus adapted to manufacturing production。 These nations ought
to act towards one another just as two great merchants would do who
carry on different branches of trade and who reciprocally enrich
one another by the exchange of goods。（2*） Not a word here of the
old maxim of England； that a nation can only attain to the highest
degree of wealth and power in her foreign trade by the exchange of
manufactured products against agricultural products and raw
materials。 This maxim was then； and has remained since； an English
State secret； it was never again openly professed； but was all the
more persistently followed。 If； however； England since William
Pitt's time had really cast away the protective system as a useless
crutch； she would now occupy a much higher position than she does；
and she would have got much nearer to her object； which is to
monopolise the manufacturing power of the whole world。 The
favourable moment for attaining this object was clearly just after
the restoration of the general peace。 Hatred of Napoleon's
Continental system had secured a reception among all nations of the
Continent of the doctrines of the cosmopolitical theory。 Russia；
the entire North of Europe； Germany； the Spanish peninsula； and the
United States of North America would have considered themselves
fortunate in exchanging their agricultural produce and raw
materials for English manufactured goods。 France herself would
perhaps have found it possible； in consideration of some decided
concessions in respect of her wine and silk manufactures； to depart
from her prohibitive system。
Then also the time had arrived when； as Priestley said of the
English navigation laws； it would be just as wise to repeal the
English protective system as it had formerly been to introduce it。
The result of such a policy would have been that all the
surplus raw materials and agricultural produce from the two
hemispheres would have flowed over to England； and all the world
would have clothed themselves with English fabrics。 All would have
tended to increase the wealth and the power of England。 Under such
circumstances the Americans or the Russians would hardly have taken
it into their heads in the course of the present century to
introduce a protective system； or the Germans to establish a
customs union。 People would have come to the determination with
difficulty to sacrifice the advantages of the present moment to the
hopes of a distant future。
But Providence has taken care that trees should not grow quite
up to the sky。 Lord Castlereagh gave over the commercial policy of
England into the hands of the landed aristocracy； and these killed
the hen which had laid the golden eggs。 Had they permitted the
English manufactures to monopolise the markets of all nations；
Great Britain would have occupied the position in respect to the
world which a manufacturing town does in respect to the open
country； the whole territory of the island of England would have
been covered with houses and manufactories； or devoted to pleasure
gardens； vegetable gardens； and orchards； to the production of milk
and of meat； or of the cultivation of market produce； and generally
to such cultivation as only can be carried on in the neighbourhood
of great cities。 The production of these things would have become
much more lucrative for English agriculture than the production of
corn； and consequently after a time the English landed aristocracy
would have obtained much higher rents than by the exclusion of
foreign grain from the home market。 Only； the landed aristocracy
having only their present interests in view； preferred by means of
the corn laws to maintain their rents at the high rate to which
they had been raised by the involuntary exclusion of foreign raw
materials and grain from the English market which had been
occasioned by the war； and thus they compelled the nations of the
Continent to seek to promote their own welfare by another method
than by the free exchange of agricultural produce for English
manufactures； viz。 By the method of establishing a manufacturing
power of their own。 The English restrictive laws thus operated
quite in the same way as Napoleon's Continental system had done；
only their operation was somewhat slower。
When Canning and Huskisson came into office； the landed
aristocracy had already tasted too much of the forbidden fruit for
it to be possible to induce them by reasons of common sense to
renounce what they had enjoyed。 These statesmen found themselves in
the difficult position of solving an impossible problem a
position in which the English ministry still finds itself。 They had
at one and the same time to convince the Continental nations of the
advantages of free trade； and also maintain the restrictions on the
import of foreign agricultural produce for the benefit of the
English landed aristocracy。 Hence it was impossible that their
system could be developed in such a manner that justice could be
done to the hopes of the advocates of free trade on both
continents。 With all their liberality with philanthropical and