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the sneak…thief or pick…pocket class； has taught us that living conditions for the individual may be founded on whole careers of misrepresentation and liesfor very understandable reasons。 Self…accusations may sometimes be evolved with the idea of gaining directly practical results； as when a lover or a comrade is shielded； or when there is danger of a larger crime being fastened on the self…incriminator。
In selection and treatment of our material we have confined ourselves as closely as possible to the definition first given in this chaptera definition that after some years of observation we found could be made and held to。 While we would not deny that some of our cases may eventually find their way into an insane hospital； still none of them； except some we have enumerated under the name of border…line types； has so far shown any indication of this。 That some of our cases have more or less recovered from a strongly…marked and prolonged inclination to falsify is a fact of great importance for treatment and prognosis。
We see neither reason for including insane cases nor for overlapping the already used classifications which are based on more vital facts than the symptom of lying。 Our use of abnormal cases in our chapter； ‘‘Illustrations of Border…Line Types；'' will be perfectly clear to those who read these cases。 They represent the material not easily diagnosed； sometimes after long observation by professional people； or else they are clearly abnormal individuals who； by the possession of certain capacities； manage to keep their heads well above the level of social incompetency as judged by the world at large。
We have introduced only the cases where we have had ample proof that the individual had been given to excessive lying of our peculiar type。 In the court room and working with delinquents outside the court； it is in rare instances totally impossible to know where the truth finally rests； such have been left out。 Then； too； we omit cases in which false accusations have about them the shadow of even a suspicion of vindictiveness。 False accusations of young children against parents would hardly seem to have such a basis； and yet in some instances this fact has come out clearly。 Grudge…formation on the part of young individuals has all through our work been one of the extraordinary findings； capacity for it varies tremendously in different individuals。
Several forms of excessive lying； particularly those practised by children and adolescents； are not discussed by us because they are largely age phenomena and only verge upon the pathological as they are carried over into wider fields of conduct。 The fantasies of children； and the almost obsessional lying in some young adolescents； too； we avoid。 There is much shading of typical pathological lying into； on the one hand； the really insane types； and； on the other hand； into the lying which is to be explained by quite normal reactions or where the tendency to mendacity is only partially developed。
It has been a matter of no small interest to us that in planning this monograph we conceived it necessary to consider part of our material under the head of episodic pathological lying and that later we had to omit this chapter。 Surely there had been casesso it seemed to us at firstwhere purposeless lying had been indulged in for a comparatively short time； particularly during the adolescent period； without expression of a prevaricating tendency before or after this time。 When we came to review our material with this chapter in mind we found no sufficient verification of the fact that there was any such thing as episodic pathological lying； apart from peculiar manifestations in cases of epilepsy； hysteria； and other mental abnormalities。 A short career of extensive lying； not unfrequently met with in work for juvenile courts and other social agencies； seems； judging from our material； to be always so mixed up with other delinquencies or unfortunate sex experiences that the lying； after all； cannot be regarded as purposeless。 It is indulged in most often in an attempt to disguise undesirable truths。 That false accusations and even self…accusations are engaged in for the same purpose goes without saying。 The girl who donned man's clothes； left home and lived for months a life of lies was seeking an adventure which would offset intolerable home conditions。 The young woman who after seeing something of the pleasures of the world was placed in a strict religious home where she told exaggerated stories about her own bad behavior； was endeavoring to get more freedom elsewhere。 A young fellow whom we found to be a most persistent and consistent liar was discovered to have been already well schooled in the art of professional criminalistic self…protection。 So it has gone。 Investigation of each of these episodic cases has shown the fabrications to emanate either from a distinctly abnormal personality or to partake of a character which rules them out of the realm of pathological lying。 In our cases of temporary adolescent psychoses lying was rarely found a puzzling feature； the basic nature of the case was too easily discoverable。
A fair question to ask at this point is whether pathological lying is ever found to be the only delinquency of the given individual。 We should hesitate to deny the possibility of its being the sole offense； but in our study of a long list of cases； and after review of those reported by other authors； it seems practically impossible to find a case of this。 The tendencies soon carry the person over to the production of other delinquencies； and if these do not come in the category of punishable offenses； at least； through the trouble and suffering caused others； they are to be regarded essentially as misconduct。
The reverse of the above question deserves a word or two of attention； are there marked cases of delinquency which do not show lying？ Surveying the figures of Ferriani＇6＇ who enumerated thousands of lies； belonging to his nine classes of prevarications； which a group of 500 young offenders indulged in； one would think that all delinquents are liars many times over。 But as a matter of fact we have been profoundly astonished to discover that a considerable percentage of the cases we have studied； even of repeated offenders； have proved notably truthful。 Occasionally the very person who will engage in a major form of delinquency will hesitate to lie。 Our experience shows this to be less true； however； of sex delinquency than perhaps of any other。 This statement is based on general observations； the accurate correlations have not been worked up。 Occasionally the professional criminal of many misdeeds is proud of his uprightness in other spheres of behavior； including veracity。 But even here one would have to classify carefully； for it is obvious that the typical swindler would find lying his best cloak of disguise。 On the other hand； a bold safe…blower may look down with scorn upon a form of criminality which demands constant mendacity。
＇6＇ loc。 cit。
Realizing that pathological lying is a type of delinquency； and following the rule that for explanation of conduct tendencies one must go to youthful beginnings；