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he kind of reflection which distinguishes us from the animals as the POWER OF CONSIDERING OUR OWN MODIFICATIONS。 This I shall endeavour to interpret； by developing to the best of my ability the laconism of the philosophical naturalist。
The intelligence acquired by animals never modifies the operations which they perform by instinct： it is given them only as a provision against unexpected accidents which might disturb these operations。 In man； on the contrary； instinctive action is constantly changing into deliberate action。 Thus； man is social by instinct； and is every day becoming social by reflection and choice。 At first； he formed his words by instinct；＇1＇ he was a poet by inspiration： to…day； he makes grammar a science； and poetry an art。 His conception of God and a future life is spontaneous and instinctive； and his expressions of this conception have been； by turns； monstrous； eccentric； beautiful； comforting； and terrible。 All these different creeds； at which the frivolous irreligion of the eighteenth century mocked； are modes of expression of the religious sentiment。 Some day； man will explain to himself the character of the God whom he believes in； and the nature of that other world to which his soul aspires。
＇1＇ 〃The problem of the origin of language is solved by the distinction made by Frederic Cuvier between instinct and intelligence。 Language is not a premeditated； arbitrary； or conventional device； nor is it communicated or revealed to us by God。 Language is an instinctive and unpremeditated creation of man； as the hive is of the bee。 In this sense； it may be said that language is not the work of man； since it is not the work of his mind。 Further； the mechanism of language seems more wonderful and ingenious when it is not regarded as the result of reflection。 This fact is one of the most curious and indisputable which philology has observed。 See； among other works； a Latin essay by F。 G。 Bergmann （Strasbourg； 1839）； in which the learned author explains how the phonetic germ is born of sensation； how language passes through three successive stages of development； why man； endowed at birth with the instinctive faculty of creating a language； loses this faculty as fast as his mind develops； and that the study of languages is real natural history；in fact； a science。 France possesses to…day several philologists of the first rank； endowed with rare talents and deep philosophic insight；modest savants developing a science almost without the knowledge of the public； devoting themselves to studies which are scornfully looked down upon； and seeming to shun applause as much as others seek it。〃
All that he does from instinct man despises； or； if he admires it； it is as Nature's work； not as his own。 This explains the obscurity which surrounds the names of early inventors； it explains also our indifference to religious matters； and the ridicule heaped upon religious customs。 Man esteems only the products of reflection and of reason。 The most wonderful works of instinct are； in his eyes； only lucky GOD…SENDS； he reserves the name DISCOVERYI had almost said creationfor the works of intelligence。 Instinct is the source of passion and enthusiasm； it is intelligence which causes crime and virtue。
In developing his intelligence； man makes use of not only his own observations； but also those of others。 He keeps an account of his experience； and preserves the record； so that the race； as well as the individual； becomes more and more intelligent。 The animals do not transmit their knowledge； that which each individual accumulates dies with him。
It is not enough； then； to say that we are distinguished from the animals by reflection； unless we mean thereby the CONSTANT TENDENCY OF OUR INSTINCT TO BECOME INTELLIGENCE。 While man is governed by instinct； he is unconscious of his acts。 He never would deceive himself； and never would be troubled by errors； evils； and disorder； if； like the animals； instinct were his only guide。 But the Creator has endowed us with reflection； to the end that our instinct might become intelligence； and since this reflection and resulting knowledge pass through various stages； it happens that in the beginning our instinct is opposed； rather than guided； by reflection； consequently； that our power of thought leads us to act in opposition to our nature and our end； that； deceiving ourselves； we do and suffer evil； until instinct which points us towards good； and reflection which makes us stumble into evil； are replaced by the science of good and evil； which invariably causes us to seek the one and avoid the other。
Thus； evilor error and its consequencesis the firstborn son of the union of two opposing faculties； instinct and reflection； good； or truth； must inevitably be the second child。 Or； to again employ the figure； evil is the product of incest between adverse powers； good will sooner or later be the legitimate child of their holy and mysterious union。
Property； born of the reasoning faculty； intrenches itself behind comparisons。 But； just as reflection and reason are subsequent to spontaneity； observation to sensation； and experience to instinct； so property is subsequent to communism。 Communismor association in a simple formis the necessary object and original aspiration of the social nature； the spontaneous movement by which it manifests and establishes itself。 It is the first phase of human civilization。 In this state of society； which the jurists have called NEGATIVE COMMUNISMman draws near to man； and shares with him the fruits of the field and the milk and flesh of animals。 Little by little this communism negative as long as man does not producetends to become positive and organic through the development of labor and industry。 But it is then that the sovereignty of thought； and the terrible faculty of reasoning logically or illogically； teach man that； if equality is the sine qua non of society； communism is the first species of slavery。 To express this idea by an Hegelian formula； I will say：
Communismthe first expression of the social natureis the first term of social development；the THESIS； property； the reverse of communism； is the second term；the ANTITHESIS。 When we have discovered the third term； the SYNTHESIS； we shall have the required solution。 Now； this synthesis necessarily results from the correction of the thesis by the antithesis。 Therefore it is necessary； by a final examination of their characteristics； to eliminate those features which are hostile to sociability。 The union of the two remainders will give us the true form of human association。
％ 2。Characteristics of Communism and of Property。
I。 I ought not to conceal the fact that property and communism have been considered always the only possible forms of society。 This deplorable error has been the life of property。 The disadvantages of communism are so obvious that its critics never have needed to employ much eloquence to thoroughly disgust men with it。 The irreparability of the injustice which it causes； the violence which it does to attractions and repulsions； the yoke of iron which it fastens upon the will； the moral torture to which it subjects the conscien