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n he wears； and the cabinet… maker more furniture than he uses。 But； since the various professions imply and sustain one another； not only the farmer； but the followers of all arts and tradeseven to the doctor and the school…teacherare； and ought to be； regarded as CULTIVATORS OF THE LAND。 Malthus bases farm…rent upon the principle of commerce。 Now； the fundamental law of commerce being equivalence of the products exchanged； any thing which destroys this equivalence violates the law。 There is an error in the estimate which needs to be corrected。
Buchanana commentator on Smithregarded farm…rent as the result of a monopoly； and maintained that labor alone is productive。 Consequently； he thought that； without this monopoly； products would rise in price； and he found no basis for farm…rent save in the civil law。 This opinion is a corollary of that which makes the civil law the basis of property。 But why has the civil lawwhich ought to be the written expression of justiceauthorized this monopoly？ Whoever says monopoly； necessarily excludes justice。 Now； to say that farm…rent is a monopoly sanctioned by the law； is to say that injustice is based on justice；a contradiction in terms。
Say answers Buchanan； that the proprietor is not a monopolist； because a monopolist 〃is one who does not increase the utility of the merchandise which passes through his hands。〃
How much does the proprietor increase the utility of his tenant's products？ Has he ploughed； sowed； reaped； mowed； winnowed； weeded？ These are the processes by which the tenant and his employees increase the utility of the material which they consume for the purpose of reproduction。
〃The landed proprietor increases the utility of products by means of his implement； the land。 This implement receives in one state； and returns in another the materials of which wheat is composed。 The action of the land is a chemical process； which so modifies the material that it multiplies it by destroying it。 The soil is then a producer of utility； and when it ＇the soil？＇ asks its pay in the form of profit； or farm rent； for its proprietor； it at the same time gives something to the consumer in exchange for the amount which the consumer pays it。 It gives him a produced utility； and it is the production of this utility which warrants us in calling land productive； as well as labor。〃
Let us clear up this matter。
The blacksmith who manufactures for the farmer implements of husbandry； the wheelwright who makes him a cart； the mason who builds his barn； the carpenter； the basket…maker； &c。；all of whom contribute to agricultural production by the tools which they provide；are producers of utility； consequently； they are entitled to a part of the products。
〃Undoubtedly；〃 says Say； 〃but the land also is an implement whose service must be paid for； then。 。 。 。〃
I admit that the land is an implement； but who made it？ Did the proprietor？ Did heby the efficacious virtue of the right of property； by this MORAL QUALITY infused into the soilendow it with vigor and fertility？ Exactly there lies the monopoly of the proprietor； in the fact that； though he did not make the implement； he asks pay for its use。 When the Creator shall present himself and claim farm…rent； we will consider the matter with him； or even when the proprietorhis pretended representativeshall exhibit his power…of…attorney。
〃The proprietor's service；〃 adds Say； 〃is easy； I admit。〃
It is a frank confession。
〃But we cannot disregard it。 Without property； one farmer would contend with another for the possession of a field without a proprietor； and the field would remain uncultivated。 。 。 。〃
Then the proprietor's business is to reconcile farmers by robbing them。 O logic！ O justice！ O the marvellous wisdom of economists！ The proprietor； if they are right； is like Perrin… Dandin who； when summoned by two travellers to settle a dispute about an oyster； opened it； gobbled it； and said to them：
〃The Court awards you each a shell。〃
Could any thing worse be said of property？
Will Say tell us why the same farmers； who； if there were no proprietors； would contend with each other for possession of the soil； do not contend to…day with the proprietors for this possession？ Obviously； because they think them legitimate possessors； and because their respect for even an imaginary right exceeds their avarice。 I proved； in Chapter II。； that possession is sufficient； without property； to maintain social order。 Would it be more difficult； then； to reconcile possessors without masters than tenants controlled by proprietors？ Would laboring men； who respectmuch to their own detrimentthe pretended rights of the idler； violate the natural rights of the producer and the manufacturer？ What！ if the husbandman forfeited his right to the land as soon as he ceased to occupy it； would he become more covetous？ And would the impossibility of demanding increase； of taxing another's labor； be a source of quarrels and law…suits？ The economists use singular logic。 But we are not yet through。 Admit that the proprietor is the legitimate master of the land。
〃The land is an instrument of production；〃 they say。 That is true。 But when； changing the noun into an adjective； they alter the phrase； thus； 〃The land is a productive instrument；〃 they make a wicked blunder。
According to Quesnay and the early economists； all production comes from the land。 Smith； Ricardo； and de Tracy； on the contrary； say that labor is the sole agent of production。 Say； and most of his successors； teach that BOTH land AND labor AND capital are productive。 The latter constitute the eclectic school of political economy。 The truth is； that NEITHER land NOR labor NOR capital is productive。 Production results from the co…operation of these three equally necessary elements； which； taken separately； are equally sterile。
Political economy； indeed； treats of the production； distribution； and consumption of wealth or values。 But of what values？ Of the values produced by human industry； that is； of the changes made in matter by man； that he may appropriate it to his own use； and not at all of Nature's spontaneous productions。 Man's labor consists in a simple laying on of hands。 When he has taken that trouble； he has produced a value。 Until then； the salt of the sea； the water of the springs； the grass of the fields； and the trees of the forests are to him as if they were not。 The sea； without the fisherman and his line； supplies no fish。 The forest； without the wood…cutter and his axe； furnishes neither fuel nor timber。 The meadow； without the mower； yields neither hay nor aftermath。 Nature is a vast mass of material to be cultivated and converted into products； but Nature produces nothing for herself： in the economical sense； her products； in their relation to man； are not yet products。
Capital； tools； and machinery are likewise unproductive。 The hammer and the anvil； without the blacksmith and the iron； do not forge。 The mill； without the miller and the grain； does not grind； &c。 Bring tools and raw material together； place a plough and some seed on fertile soil； enter a smithy； light the fire； and shut up