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so…called ‘state of nature’ when his needs were supposed to be confined to what are known as
the simple necessities of nature； and when he required for their satisfaction only the means which
the accidents of nature directly assured to him。 This view takes no account of the moment of
liberation intrinsic to labour； on which see the following Paragraphs。 And apart from this； it is false；
because to be confined to mere physical needs as such and their direct satisfaction would simply
be the condition in which the mental is plunged in the natural and so would be one of savagery and
unfreedom； while freedom itself is to be found only in the reflection of mind into itself； in mind’s
distinction from nature； and in the reflex of mind in nature。
§ 195。
This liberation is abstract since the particularity of the ends remains their basic
content。 When social conditions tend to multiply and subdivide needs； means； and
enjoyments indefinitely — a process which； like the distinction between natural
and refined needs； has no qualitative limits — this is luxury。 In this same process；
however； dependence and want increase ad infinitum； and the material to meet
these is permanently barred to the needy man because it consists of external
objects with the special character of being property； the embodiment of the free
will of others； and hence from his point of view its recalcitrance is absolute。
Addition： The entire Cynical mode of life adopted by Diogenes was nothing more or less than a
product of Athenian social life； and what determined it was the way of thinking against which his
whole manner protested。 Hence it was not independent of social conditions but simply their result；
it was itself a rude product of luxury。 When luxury is at its height； distress and depravity are
equally extreme； and in such circumstances Cynicism is the outcome of opposition to refinement。
（b） The Kind of Labour ＇typical of civil society＇
§ 196。
The means of acquiring and preparing the particularised means appropriate to our
similarly particularised needs is labour。 Through labour the raw material directly
supplied by nature is specifically adapted to these numerous ends by all sorts of
different processes。 Now this formative change confers value on means and gives
them their utility； and hence man in what he consumes is mainly concerned with
the products of men。 It is the products of human effort which man consumes。
Addition： There is hardly any raw material which does not need to be worked on before use。
Even air has to be worked for because we have to warm it。 Water is perhaps the only exception；
because we can drink it as we find it。 It is by the sweat of his brow and the toil of his hands that
man obtains the means to satisfy his needs。
§ 197。
The multiplicity of objects and situations which excite interest is the stage on
which theoretical education develops。 This education consists in possessing not
simply a multiplicity of ideas and facts； but also a flexibility and rapidity of mind；
ability to pass from one idea to another； to grasp complex and general relations；
and so on。 It is the education of the understanding in every way； and so also the
building up of language。 Practical education； acquired through working； consists
first in the automatically recurrent need for something to do and the habit of
simply being busy； next； in the strict adaptation of one’s activity according not
only to the nature of the material worked on； but also； and especially； to the
pleasure of other workers； and finally； in a habit； produced by this discipline； of
objective activity and universally recognised aptitudes。
Addition： The savage is lazy and is distinguished from the educated man by his brooding
stupidity； because practical education is just education in the need and habit of being busy。 A
clumsy man always produces a result he does not intend； he is not master of his own job。 The
skilled worker； on the other hand； may be said to be the man who produces the thing as it ought to
be and who hits the nail on the head without shrinking （keine Spr？digkeit in seinem subjektiven
Tun gegen den Zweck findet）。
§ 198。
The universal and objective element in labour； on the other hand； lies in the
abstracting process which effects the subdivision of needs and means and thereby
eo ipso subdivides production and brings about the division of labour。 By this
division； the labour of the individual becomes less complex； and consequently his
skill at his section of the job increases； like his output。 At the same time； this
abstraction of one man’s skill and means of production from another’s
completes and makes necessary everywhere the dependence of men on one
another and their reciprocal relation in the satisfaction of their other needs。
Further； the abstraction of one man’s production from another’s makes labour
more and more mechanical； until finally man is able to step aside and install
machines in his place。
（c） Capital ＇and class…divisions＇
§ 199。
When men are thus dependent on one another and reciprocally related to one
another in their labour and the satisfaction of their needs； subjective self…seeking
turns into a contribution to the satisfaction of the needs of everyone else。 That is
to say； by a dialectical advance； subjective self…seeking turns into the mediation of
the particular through the universal； with the result that each man in earning；
producing； and enjoying on his own account is eo ipso producing and earning for
the enjoyment of everyone else。 The compulsion which brings this about is rooted
in the complex interdependence of each on all； and it now presents itself to each
as the universal permanent capital （see § 170） which gives each the opportunity；
by the exercise of his education and skill； to draw a share from it and so be
assured of his livelihood； while what he thus earns by means of his labour
maintains and increases the general capital。
§ 200。
A particular man’s resources； or in other words his opportunity of sharing in the
general resources； are conditioned； however； partly by his own unearned principal
（his capital）； and partly by his skill； this in turn is itself dependent not only on his
capital； but also on accidental circumstances whose multiplicity introduces
differences in the development of natural； bodily； and mental characteristics；
which were already in themselves dissimilar。 In this sphere of particularity； these
differences are conspicuous in every direction and on every level； and； together
with the arbitrariness and accident which this sphere contains as well； they have
as their inevitable consequence disparities of individual resources and ability。
Remark： The objective right of the particularity of mind is contained in the Idea。 Men are made
unequal by nature； where inequality is in its element； and in civil society the right of particularity is
so far from。 annulling this