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Say； and Ricardo） of thought working upon the endless mass of details which confront it at the
outset and extracting therefrom the simple principles of the thing； the Understanding effective in the
thing and directing it。 It is to find reconciliation here to discover in the sphere of needs this show of
rationality lying in the thing and effective there； but if we look at it from the opposite point of view；
this is the field in which the Understanding with its subjective aims and moral fancies vents its
discontent and moral frustration。
Addition： There are certain universal needs such as food； drink； clothing； &c。； and it depends
entirely on accidental circumstances how these are satisfied。 The fertility of the soil varies from
place to place； harvests vary from year to year； one man is industrious； another indolent。 But this
medley of arbitrariness generates universal characteristics by its own working； and this apparently
scattered and thoughtless sphere is upheld by a necessity which automatically enters it。 To
discover this necessary element here is the object of political economy； a science which is a credit
to thought because it finds laws for a mass of accidents。 It is an interesting spectacle here to see all
chains of activity leading back to the same point； particular spheres of action fall into groups；
influence others； and are helped or hindered by others。 The most remarkable thing here is this
mutual interlocking of particulars； which is what one would least expect because at first sight
everything seems to be given over to the arbitrariness of the individual； and it has a parallel in the
solar system which displays to the eye only irregular movements； though its laws may none the less
be ascertained。
（a） The Kind of Need and Satisfaction ＇typical of civil society＇
§ 190。
An animal’s needs and its ways and means of satisfying them are both alike
restricted in scope。 Though man is subject to this restriction too； yet at the same
time he evinces his transcendence of it and his universality； first by the
multiplication of needs and means of satisfying them； and secondly by the
differentiation and division of concrete need into single parts and aspects which in
turn become different needs； particularised and so more abstract。
Remark： In ＇abstract＇ right； what we had before us was the person； in the sphere of morality；
the subject； in the family； the family…member； in civil society as a whole； the burgher or bourgeois。
Here at the standpoint of needs （compare Remark to § 123） what we have before us is the
composite idea which we call man。 Thus this is the first time； and indeed properly the only time； to
speak of man in this sense。
Addition： An animal is restricted to particularity。 It has its instincts and means of satisfying them；
means which are limited and which it cannot overstep。 Some insects are parasitic on a certain kind
of plant； some animals have a wider range and can live in different climates； but there is always a
restriction preventing them from having the range open to man。 The need of shelter and clothing；
the necessity of cooking his food to make it fit to eat and to overcome its natural rawness； both
mean that man has less comfort than an animal； and indeed； as mind； he ought to have less。
Intelligence； with its grasp of distinctions； multiplies these human needs； and since taste and utility
become criteria of judgment； even the needs themselves are affected thereby。 Finally； it is no
longer need but opinion which has to be satisfied； and it is just the educated man who analyses the
concrete into its particulars。 The very multiplication of needs involves a check on desire； because
when many things are in I use； the urge to obtain any one thing which might be needed is less
strong； and this is a sign that want altogether is not so imperious。
§ 191。
Similarly； the means to particularised needs and all the ways of satisfying these
are themselves divided and multiplied and so in turn become proximate ends and
abstract needs。 This multiplication goes on ad infinitum； taken as a whole； it is
refinement； i。e。 a discrimination between these multiplied needs； and judgment on
the suitability of means to their ends。
Addition： What the English call ‘comfort’ is something inexhaustible and illimitable。 ＇Others
can discover to you that what you take to be＇ comfort at any stage is discomfort； and these
discoveries never come to an end。 Hence the need for greater comfort does not exactly arise
within you directly； it is suggested to you by those who hope to make a profit from its creation。
§ 192。
Needs and means； as things existent realiter； become something which has being
for others by whose needs and labour satisfaction for all alike is conditioned。
When needs and means become abstract in quality （see § 191）； abstraction is
also a character of the reciprocal relation of individuals to one another。 This
abstract character； universality； is the character of being recognised and is the
moment which makes concrete； i。e。 social； the isolated and abstract needs and
their ways and means of satisfaction。
Addition： The fact that I must direct my conduct by reference to others introduces here the
form of universality。 It is from others that I acquire the means of satisfaction and I must accordingly
accept their views。 At the same time； however； I am compelled to produce means for the
satisfaction of others。 We play into each other’s hands and so hang together。 To this extent
everything private becomes something social。 In dress fashions and hours of meals； there are
certain conventions which we have to accept because in these things it is not worth the trouble to I
insist on displaying one’s own discernment。 The wisest thing here is to do as others do。
§ 193。
This social moment thus becomes a particular end…determinant for means in
themselves and their acquisition； as well as for the manner in which needs are
satisfied。 Further； it directly involves the demand for equality of satisfaction with
others。 The need for this equality and for emulation； which is the equalising of
oneself with others； as well as the other need also present here； the need of the
particular to assert itself in some distinctive way； become themselves a fruitful
source of the multiplication of needs and their expansion。
§ 194。
Since in social needs； as the conjunction of immediate or natural needs with
mental needs arising from ideas； it is needs of the latter type which because of
their universality make themselves preponderant； this social moment has in it the
aspect of liberation； i。e。 the strict natural necessity of need is obscured and man is
concerned with his own opinion； indeed with an opinion which is universal； and
with a necessity of his own making alone； instead of with an external necessity；
an inner contingency； and mere caprice。
Remark： The idea has been advanced that in respect of his needs man lived in freedom in the
so…called ‘state of n