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here。） The tragic destruction of figures whose ethical life is on the highest plane can interest and elevate us
and reconcile us to its occurrence only in so far as they come on the scene in opposition to one another
together with equally justified but different ethical powers which have come into collision through misfortune；
because the result is that then these figures acquire guilt through their opposition to an ethical law。 Out of this
situation there arises the right and wrong of both parties and therefore the true ethical Idea； which； purified and
in triumph over this one…sidedness； is thereby reconciled in us。 Accordingly； it is not the highest in us which
perishes； we are elevated not by the destruction of the best but by the triumph of the true。 This it is which
constitutes the true； purely ethical； interest of ancient tragedy （in romantic tragedy the character of the interest
undergoes a certain modification）。 All this I have worked out in detail in my Phenomenology of Mind 。 But the
ethical Idea is actual and pregnant in the world of social institutions without the misfortune of tragic clashes
and the destruction of individuals overcome by this misfortune。 And this Idea's （the highest's） revelation of
itself in its actuality as anything but a nullity is what the external embodiment of ethical life； the state； purposes
and effects； and what the ethical self…consciousness possesses； intuits； and knows in the state and what the
thinking mind comprehends there。
The culminating form of this subjectivity which conceives itself as the final court of appeal — our
topic here — can be nothing except what was implicitly present already in its preceding forms；
namely subjectivity knowing itself as the arbiter and judge of truth； right； and duty。 It consists then
in this； that it knows the objective ethical principles； but fails in self…forgetfulness and
self…renunciation to immerse itself in their seriousness and to base action upon them。 Although
related to them； it holds itself aloof from them and knows itself as that which wills and decides
thus； although it may equally well will and decide otherwise。 You actually accept a law； it says； and
respect it as absolute。 So do 1； but I go further than you； because I am beyond this law and can
make it to suit myself It is not the thing that is excellent； but I who am so； as the master of law and
thing alike； I simply play with them as with my caprice； my consciously ironical attitude lets the
highest perish and I merely hug myself at the thought。 This type of subjectivism not merely
substitutes a void for the whole content of ethics； right； duties； and laws — and so is evil； in fact
evil through and through and universally — but in addition its form is a subjective void； i。e。 it knows
itself as this contentless void and in this knowledge knows itself as absolute。
In my Phenomenology of Mind； I have shown how this absolute self…complacency fails to rest in
a solitary worship of itself but builds up a sort of community whose bond and substance is； e。g。；
the 'mutual Asseveration of conscientiousness and good intentions； the enjoyment of this mutual
purity'； but is above all 'the refreshment derived from the glory of this self…knowledge and
self…expression； from the glory of fostering and cherishing this experience'。 I have shown also how
what has been called a 'beautiful soul' — that still nobler type of subjectivism which empties the
objective of all content and so fades away until it loses all actuality — is a variation of subjectivism
like other forms of the same phenomenon akin to the series of them here considered。 What is said
here may be compared with the entire section （C）； 'Conscience'； in the Phenomenology；
especially the part dealing with the transition to a higher stage — a stage； however； there different
in characters
Addition： Representative thinking may go further and pervert the evil will into a show of
goodness。 Although it cannot alter the nature of evil； it can invest it with a show of goodness。 Since
every action has a positive aspect； and since the category of good as opposed to evil is likewise
reduced to positivity； I may claim that my action in its bearing on my intention is good。 Thus evil
has good linked with it not only in my consciousness but also if we look at my action on its positive
side。 When self…consciousness gives out； to others only； that its action is good； this form of
subjectivism is hypocrisy。 But if it goes so far as to claim that the deed is good in its own eyes
also； then we have a still higher peak of the subjectivism which knows itself as absolute。 For this
type of mind absolute good and absolute evil have both vanished； and the subject is therefore at
liberty to pass himself off at discretion as anything he likes。 This is the position of the absolute
sophistry which usurps the office of lawgiver and rests the distinction between good and evil on its
own caprice。 The chief hypocrites are the pious ones （the Tartuffes） who are punctilious in every
ritual observance and may even be religious to all appearance； while yet they do just as they
please。 There is little mention of hypocrites nowadays； partly because the accusation of hypocrisy
seems to be too harsh； partly； however； because hypocrisy in its naive form has more or less
disappeared。 This downright falsehood； this veneer of goodness； has now become too transparent
not to be seen through； and the divorce between doing good with one hand and evil with the other
no longer occurs； since advancing culture has weakened the opposition between these categories。
Instead； hypocrisy has now assumed the subtler form of Probabilism； which involves the agent's
attempt to represent a transgression as something good from the point of view of his private
conscience。 This doctrine can only arise when the moral and the good are determined by authority；
with the result that there are as many reasons as there are authorities for supposing that evil is
good。 Casuist theologians； Jesuits especially； have worked up these cases of conscience and
multiplied them ad infinitum。
These cases have now been elaborated to such a high degree of subtlety that numerous clashes
have arisen between them； and the opposition between good and evil has become so weak that in
single instances they appear to turn into one another。 The only desideratum now is probability； i。e。
something approximately good； something which may be supported by any single reason or
authority。 Thus the special characteristic of this attitude is that its content is purely abstract； it sets
up the concrete content as something inessential or rather abandons it to bare opinion。 On this
principle； anyone may have committed a crime and yet have willed the good。 For example； if a
bad character is murdered； the positive side of the action may be given out to be the withstanding
of evil and the will to diminish it。
Now the next step beyond Probabilism is that it is no longer a question of someone else's
statement or authority； it is a question only of the subject himself； i。e。 of his own convictions
conviction which alone is able to make a thing good。 The defect