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much more forcibly by M。 de Tocqueville； that I should have thought it
unnecessary to talk about them； were not the rhetorical phrases； 〃Caste；〃
〃Privileged Classes；〃 〃Aristocratic Exclusiveness；〃 and such…like； bandied
about again just now； as if they represented facts。 If there remain in this
kingdom any facts which correspond to those words； let them be abolished
as speedily as possible： but that such do remain was not the opinion of
the master of modern political philosophy； M。 de Tocqueville。
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He expresses his surprise 〃that the fact which distinguishes England
from all other modern nations； and which alone can throw light on her
peculiarities； 。 。 。 has not attracted more attention； 。 。 。 and that habit has
rendered it； as it were； imperceptible to the English themselvesthat
England was the only country in which the system of caste had been not
only modified； but effectually destroyed。 The nobility and the middle
classes followed the same business； embraced the same professions； and；
what is far more significant； intermarried with each other。 The daughter
of the greatest nobleman〃 （and this； if true of the eighteenth century； has
become far more true of the nineteenth） 〃could already； without disgrace；
marry a man of yesterday。〃 。 。 。
〃It has often been remarked that the English nobility has been more
prudent； more able； and less exclusive than any other。 It would have
been much nearer the truth to say； that in England； for a very long time
past； no nobility； properly so called； have existed； if we take the word in
the ancient and limited sense it has everywhere else retained。〃 。 。 。
〃For several centuries the word 'gentleman'〃 （he might have added；
〃burgess〃） 〃has altogether changed its meaning in England； and the word
'roturier' has ceased to exist。 In each succeeding century it is applied to
persons placed somewhat lower in the social scale〃 （as the 〃bagman〃 of
Pickwick has become； and has deserved to become； the 〃commercial
gentleman〃 of our day）。 〃At length it travelled with the English to
America； where it is used to designate every citizen indiscriminately。 Its
history is that of democracy itself。〃 。 。 。
〃If the middle classes of England； instead of making war upon the
aristocracy； have remained so intimately connected with it； it is not
especially because the aristocracy is open to all； but rather； because its
outline was indistinct； and its limit unknown： not so much because any
man might be admitted into it； as because it was impossible to say with
certainty when he took rank there： so that all who approached it might
look on themselves as belonging to it； might take part in its rule； and
derive either lustre or profit from its influence。〃
Just so； and therefore the middle classes of Britain； of whatever their
special political party； are conservative in the best sense of that word。
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For there are not three； but only two； classes in England； namely； rich
and poor： those who live by capital （from the wealthiest landlord to the
smallest village shopkeeper）； and those who live by hand…labour。
Whether the division between those two classes is increasing or not； is a
very serious question。 Continued legislation in favour of the hand…
labourer； and a beneficence towards him； when in need； such as no other
nation on earth has ever shown； have done much to abolish the moral
division。 But the social division has surely been increased during the last
half century； by the inevitable tendency； both in commerce and agriculture；
to employ one large capital； where several small ones would have been
employed a century ago。 The large manufactory； the large shop； the large
estate； the large farm； swallows up the small ones。 The yeoman； the
thrifty squatter who could work at two or three trades as well as till his
patch of moor； the hand…loom weaver； the skilled village craftsman； have
all but disappeared。 The handworker； finding it more and more difficult
to invest his savings； has been more and more tempted to squander them。
To rise to the dignity of a capitalist； however small； was growing
impossible to him； till the rise of that co…operative movement； which will
do more than any social or political impulse in our day for the safety of
English society； and the loyalty of the English working classes。 And
meanwhileere that movement shall have spread throughout the length
and breadth of the land； and have been applied； as it surely will be some
day； not only to distribution； not only to manufacture； but to agriculture
likewisetill then； the best judges of the working men's worth must be
their employers； and especially the employers of the northern
manufacturing population。 What their judgment is； is sufficiently
notorious。 Those who depend most on the working men； who have the
best opportunities of knowing them； trust them most thoroughly。 As long
as great manufacturers stand forward as the political sponsors of their own
workmen； it behoves those who cannot have had their experience； to
consider their opinion as conclusive。 As for that 〃influence of the higher
classes〃 which is said to be endangered just now； it will exist； just as much
as it deserves to exist。 Any man who is superior to the many； whether in
talents； education； refinement； wealth； or anything else； will always be
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THE ANCIEN REGIME
able to influence a number of menand if he thinks it worth his while； of
votesby just and lawful means。 And as for unjust and unlawful means；
let those who prefer them keep up heart。 The world will go on much as it
did before； and be always quite bad enough to allow bribery and
corruption； jobbery and nepotism； quackery and arrogance； their fu