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ves it as 〃Birkana。〃 It has been supposed that the real name was Vikrama。
About the year 1475 there was a terrible famine in the Dakhan and the country of the Telugus； which lasted for two years。 At its close the Hindu population of Kondapalle revolted； murdered the Muhammadan governor； and invited aid from the king of Orissa。 This monarch accordingly advanced and laid siege to Rajahmundry； which was then the governorship of Nizam…ul…Mulkh； but on the Shah marching in person to the relief of the place the army of Orissa retired。 In the latter part of the year 882； which corresponds to March 1478 A。D。； Muhammad penetrated to the capital of Orissa； 〃and used no mercy in slaughtering the inhabitants and laying waste the country of the enemy。〃 The Rajah submitted； and purchased his immunity from further interference on the part of the Sultan by a present of some valuable elephants。
Firishtah and the BURHAN…I MAASIR differ considerably as to what followed。 The former states that； after his raid into Orissa； Muhammad Shah reduced Kondapalle； where he destroyed a temple； slew the Brahman priests attached to it； and ordered a mosque to be erected on its site。 He remained nearly three years at Rajahmundry； secured the Telingana country； expelled some refractory zamindars； and 〃resolved on the conquest of Nursing Raya。〃
〃Nursing；〃 says Firishtah； 〃was a powerful raja； possessing the country between Carnatic＇157＇ and Telingana； extending along the sea…coast； to Matchiliputtum；＇158＇ and had added much of the Beejanuggur territory to his own by conquest； with several strong forts。〃
This was probably the powerful chief Narasimha Raya； a relation of the king of Vijayanagar； who； intrusted with the government of large tracts； was rising rapidly to independence under the weak and feeble monarch whom he finally supplanted。 The Sultan went to Kondapalle；＇159＇ and there was told that； at a distance of ten days' journey； 〃was the temple of Kunchy；＇160＇ the walls and roof of which were plated with gold； ornamented with precious stones；〃 upon receipt of which intelligence the Sultan is said to have made a forced march thither； taking with him only 6000 cavalry； and to have sacked the place。
The account given by the BURHAN…I MAASIR as to Muhammad Shah's proceedings at this period is that on going to Rajahmundry he found there Narasimha Raya 〃with 700；000 cursed infantry； and 500 elephants like mountains of iron；〃 who； in spite of all his pomp and power； fled like a craven on the approach of the army of Islam。 The Sultan then reduced Rajahmundry； which had been held by a HINDU force not Muhammadan； as Firishtah declares。 In November 1480＇161＇ he marched from Rajahmundry to Kondavid； going 〃towards the kingdom of Vijayanagar。〃 After reducing that fortress； he proceeded after a while to Malur； which belonged to Narasimha； 〃who； owing to his numerous army and the extent of his dominions； was the greatest and most powerful of all the rulers of Telingana and Vijayanagar；〃 and who 〃had established himself in the midst of the countries of Kanara and Telingana； and taken possession of most of the districts of the coast and interior of Vijayanagar。〃
While at Malur the Sultan was informed that 〃at a distance of fifty farsakhas from his camp was a city called Ganji；〃 containing temples； &c。； to which he promptly marched； arriving before the place on 13th March A。D。 1481。＇162＇ He sacked the city and returned。
After this the Sultan went to Masulipatam； which he reduced； and thence returned to Kondapalle。 This was his last success。 His cold…blooded murder of the celebrated Mahmud Gawan； his loyal and faithful servant； in 1481； so disgusted the nobles that in a short time the kingdom was dismembered； the chiefs revolted； the dynasty was overthrown； and five independent kingdoms were raised on its ruins。
Muhammad Shah died on 21st March。 A。D。 1482。 Shortly before his death he planned an expedition to relieve Goa from a Vijayanagar army which 〃Sewaroy； Prince of Beejanuggur；〃 had sent there （Firishtah）； but the Sultan's death put a stop to this （BURHAN…I MAASIR）。
We have some further information on the affairs of Kulbarga during the reign of Muhammad Shah in the writings of the Russian traveller Athanasius Nikitin； but it is very difficult to fix the exact date of his sojourn there。 Nikitin was a native of Twer； and set out on his wanderings by permission of the Grand Duke Michael Borissovitch； and his own bishop； Gennadius。 This fixes the time of his start so far that it must have taken place subsequent to 1462； and the author of the 〃Bombay Gazetteer；〃 RE Poonah； assigns the period 1468 to 1474 as that of Nikitin's stay in India。
Nikitin first went to Chaul； and thence travelled by land to Junir。
〃Here resides Asat； Khan of Indian Jooneer； a tributary of Meliktuchar。。。。 He has been fighting the Kofars for twenty years； being sometimes beaten but mostly beating them。〃
By 〃Meliktuchar〃 is probably meant the celebrated minister Mahmud Gawan； who in 1457 A。D。 received the title 〃Mallik…al…Tijar；〃 a title which was borne by the chief amongst the nobility at the Bahmani court。 It meant literally 〃chief of the merchants。〃 The 〃Kofars〃 are； of course； the Kaffirs or Hindus。 Firishtah tells us of fighting having taken place in 1469 between the Mallik…al…Tijar and 〃the roles of Songeer； Khalneh； and rebels in Kokun；〃 when the troops of Junir were under the Mallik's command。 During the war he captured Goa； as already stated。 There were campaigns also against the Hindus of Rajahmundry； Vinukonda； and other places； and in 1472 one against Belgaum； which has been already described。 Firishtah tells us that the Daulatabad and Junir troops were sent against the powerful Hindu Raja Narasimha on the east coast。＇163＇ As to Kulbarga and his experiences there； Nikitin writes as follows：
〃The Hindus 。。。 are all naked and bare…footed。 They carry a shield in one hand and a sword in the other。 Some of the servants are armed with straight bows and arrows。 Elephants are greatly used in battle。。。。 Large scythes are attached to the trunks and tusks of the elephants； and the animals are clad in ornamental plates of steel。 They carry a citadel； and in the citadel twelve men in armour with guns and arrows。。。。 The land is overstocked with people； but those in the country are very miserable； whilst the nobles are extremely opulent and delight in luxury。 They are wont to be carried on their silver beds； preceded by some twenty chargers caparisoned in gold； and followed by three hundred men on horseback and five hundred on foot； and by horn…men； ten torch…bearers； and ten musicians。
〃There may be seen in the train of the Sultan about a thousand ordinary horses in gold trappings； one hundred carrels with torch…bearers； three hundred trumpeters； three hundred dancers。。。。 The Sultan； riding on a golden saddle； wears a habit embroidered with sapphires； and on his pointed headdress a large diamond； he also carries a suit of gold armour inlaid with sapphires； and three swords mounted in gold。。。。 The brother of the Sultan rides on a golden bed； the canopy of which is covered with velvet and ornamented with precious stones。。。。 Mahmud sits on a golden bed； with a silken c