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a sentence by the uses of the language； and there are many phrases of
which the meaning is most obscure or altogether inexplicable； though the
component words are perfectly plain。
（93） To this impossibility of tracing the history of the Hebrew
language must be added its particular nature and composition： these give
rise to so many ambiguities that it is impossible to find a method which
would enable us to gain a certain knowledge of all the statements in
Scripture； ＇Endnote 7＇。 （94） In addition to the sources of ambiguities
common to all languages； there are many peculiar to Hebrew。 （95） These； I
think； it worth while to mention。
（96） Firstly； an ambiguity often arises in the Bible from our mistaking
one letter for another similar one。 （97） The Hebrews divide the letters of
the alphabet into five classes； according to the five organs of the month
employed in pronouncing them； namely； the lips； the tongue； the teeth； the
palate； and the throat。 （98） For instance； Alpha； Ghet； Hgain； He； are
called gutturals； and are barely distinguishable； by any sign that we know；
one from the other。 （99） El； which signifies to； is often taken for hgal；
which signifies above； and vice versa。 （100） Hence sentences are often
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rendered rather ambiguous or meaningless。
（101） A second difficulty arises from the multiplied meaning of
conjunctions and adverbs。 （102） For instance； vau serves promiscuously
for a particle of union or of separation； meaning； and； but； because；
however； then： ki； has seven or eight meanings； namely； wherefore；
although； if； when； inasmuch as； because； a burning； &c。； and so on with
almost all particles。
（103） The third very fertile source of doubt is the fact that Hebrew
verbs in the indicative mood lack the present； the past imperfect； the
pluperfect； the future perfect； and other tenses most frequently employed
in other languages； in the imperative and infinitive moods they are
wanting in all except the present； and a subjunctive mood does not exist。
（104） Now； although all these defects in moods and tenses may be
supplied by certain fundamental rules of the language with ease and even
elegance； the ancient writers evidently neglected such rules altogether； and
employed indifferently future for present and past； and vice versa past for
future； and also indicative for imperative and subjunctive； with the result
of considerable confusion。
（105） Besides these sources of ambiguity there are two others； one
very important。 （106） Firstly； there are in Hebrew no vowels； secondly； the
sentences are not separated by any marks elucidating the meaning or
separating the clauses。 （107） Though the want of these two has generally
been supplied by points and accents； such substitutes cannot be accepted
by us； inasmuch as they were invented and designed by men of an after
age whose authority should carry no weight。 （108） The ancients wrote
without points （that is； without vowels and accents）； as is abundantly
testified； their descendants added what was lacking； according to their
own ideas of Scriptural interpretation； wherefore the existing accents and
points are simply current interpretations； and are no more authoritative
than any other commentaries。
（109） Those who are ignorant of this fact cannot justify the author of
the Epistle to the Hebrews for interpreting （chap。 xi；21） Genesis （xlvii：31）
very differently from the version given in our Hebrew text as at present
pointed； as though the Apostle had been obliged to learn the meaning of
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Scripture from those who added the points。 （110） In my opinion the latter
are clearly wrong。 （111） In order that everyone may judge for himself； and
also see how the discrepancy arose simply from the want of vowels； I will
give both interpretations。 （112）Those who pointed our version read； 〃And
Israel bent himself over； or （changing Hqain into Aleph； a similar letter）
towards； the head of the bed。〃 （113） The author of the Epistle reads； 〃And
Israel bent himself over the head of his staff；〃 substituting mate for mita；
from which it only differs in respect of vowels。 （114） Now as in this
narrative it is Jacob's age only that is in question； and not his illness；
which is not touched on till the next chapter； it seems more likely that the
historian intended to say that Jacob bent over the head of his staff （a thing
commonly used by men of advanced age for their support） than that he
bowed himself at the head of his bed； especially as for the former reading
no substitution of letters is required。 （115） In this example I have desired
not only to reconcile the passage in the Epistle with the passage in Genesis；
but also and chiefly to illustrate how little trust should be placed in the
points and accents which are found in our present Bible； and so to prove
that he who would be without bias in interpreting Scripture should hesitate
about accepting them； and inquire afresh for himself。 （116） Such being the
nature and structure of the Hebrew language； one may easily understand
that many difficulties are likely to arise； and that no possible method could
solve all of them。 （117） It is useless to hope for a way out of our
difficulties in the comparison of various parallel passages （we have shown
that the only method of discovering the true sense of a passage out of
many alternative ones is to see what are the usages of the language）； for
this comparison of parallel passages can only accidentally throw light on a
difficult point； seeing that the prophets never wrote with the express object
of explaining their own phrases or those of other people； and also because
we cannot infer the meaning of one prophet or apostle by the meaning of
another； unless on a purely practical question； not when the matter is
speculative； or if a miracle； or history is being narrated。 （118） I might
illustrate my point with instances； for there are many inexplicable phrases
in Scripture； but