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e in communication with the hamlet of Olette （747 inhabitants）； &c。 In 1895 alone 90 millions of francs were voted for railways of only local utility。 There is other no less important expenditure necessitated also by electioneering considerations。 The law instituting workingmen's pensions will soon involve a minimum annual outlay of 165 millions； according to the Minister of Finance； and of 800 millions according to the academician M。 Leroy…Beaulieu。 It is evident that the continued growth of expenditure of this kind must end in bankruptcy。 Many European countriesPortugal； Greece； Spain； Turkeyhave reached this stage； and others； such as Italy； will soon be reduced to the same extremity。 Still too much alarm need not be felt at this state of things； since the public has successively consented to put up with the reduction of four…fifths in the payment of their coupons by these different countries。 Bankruptcy under these ingenious conditions allows the equilibrium of Budgets difficult to balance to be instantly restored。 Moreover； wars； socialism； and economic conflicts hold in store for us a profusion of other catastrophes in the period of universal disintegration we are traversing； and it is necessary to be resigned to living from hand to mouth without too much concern for a future we cannot control。
The second of the dangers referred to abovethe inevitable restrictions on liberty consummated by parliamentary assembliesis apparently less obvious； but is； nevertheless； very real。 It is the result of the innumerable lawshaving always a restrictive actionwhich parliaments consider themselves obliged to vote and to whose consequences； owing to their shortsightedness； they are in a great measure blind。
The danger must indeed be most inevitable； since even England itself； which assuredly offers the most popular type of the parliamentary regime； the type in which the representative is most independent of his elector； has been unable to escape it。 Herbert Spencer has shown； in a work already old； that the increase of apparent liberty must needs be followed by the decrease of real liberty。 Returning to this contention in his recent book； 〃The Individual versus the State；〃 he thus expresses himself with regard to the English Parliament：
〃Legislation since this period has followed the course； I pointed out。 Rapidly multiplying dictatorial measures have continually tended to restrict individual liberties； and this in two ways。 Regulations have been established every year in greater number； imposing a constraint on the citizen in matters in which his acts were formerly completely free； and forcing him to accomplish acts which he was formerly at liberty to accomplish or not to accomplish at will。 At the same time heavier and heavier public； and especially local； burdens have still further restricted his liberty by diminishing the portion of his profits he can spend as he chooses； and by augmenting the portion which is taken from him to be spent according to the good pleasure of the public authorities。〃
This progressive restriction of liberties shows itself in every country in a special shape which Herbert Spencer has not pointed out； it is that the passing of these innumerable series of legislative measures； all of them in a general way of a restrictive order； conduces necessarily to augment the number； the power； and the influence of the functionaries charged with their application。 These functionaries tend in this way to become the veritable masters of civilised countries。 Their power is all the greater owing to the fact that； amidst the incessant transfer of authority； the administrative caste is alone in being untouched by these changes； is alone in possessing irresponsibility； impersonality； and perpetuity。 There is no more oppressive despotism than that which presents itself under this triple form。
This incessant creation of restrictive laws and regulations； surrounding the pettiest actions of existence with the most complicated formalities； inevitably has for its result the confining within narrower and narrower limits of the sphere in which the citizen may move freely。 Victims of the delusion that equality and liberty are the better assured by the multiplication of laws； nations daily consent to put up with trammels increasingly burdensome。 They do not accept this legislation with impunity。 Accustomed to put up with every yoke； they soon end by desiring servitude； and lose all spontaneousness and energy。 They are then no more than vain shadows； passive； unresisting and powerless automata。
Arrived at this point； the individual is bound to seek outside himself the forces he no longer finds within him。 The functions of governments necessarily increase in proportion as the indifference and helplessness of the citizens grow。 They it is who must necessarily exhibit the initiative； enterprising； and guiding spirit in which private persons are lacking。 It falls on them to undertake everything； direct everything； and take everything under their protection。 The State becomes an all…powerful god。 Still experience shows that the power of such gods was never either very durable or very strong。
This progressive restriction of all liberties in the case of certain peoples； in spite of an outward license that gives them the illusion that these liberties are still in their possession； seems at least as much a consequence of their old age as of any particular system。 It constitutes one of the precursory symptoms of that decadent phase which up to now no civilisation has escaped。
Judging by the lessons of the past； and by the symptoms that strike the attention on every side； several of our modern civilisations have reached that phase of extreme old age which precedes decadence。 It seems inevitable that all peoples should pass through identical phases of existence； since history is so often seen to repeat its course。
It is easy to note briefly these common phases of the evolution of civilisations； and I shall terminate this work with a summary of them。 This rapid sketch will perhaps throw some gleams of light on the causes of the power at present wielded by crowds。
If we examine in their main lines the genesis of the greatness and of the fall of the civilisations that preceded our own； what do we see？
At the dawn of civilisation a swarm of men of various origin； brought together by the chances of migrations； invasions； and conquests。 Of different blood； and of equally different languages and beliefs； the only common bond of union between these men is the half…recognised law of a chief。 The psychological characteristics of crowds are present in an eminent degree in these confused agglomerations。 They have the transient cohesion of crowds； their heroism； their weaknesses； their impulsiveness； and their violence。 Nothing is stable in connection with them。 They are barbarians。
At length time accomplishes its work。 The identity of surroundings； the repeated intermingling of races； the necessities of life in common exert their influence。 The assemblage of dissimilar units begins to blend into a whole； to form a race； that is； an aggregate possessing common characteristics and sentiments