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； the pair will be able to converse together； and they will appear to each other as the two complementary aspects of one and the same state of society。〃
The image thus evoked is very vivid； and all the adversaries of the speaker felt themselves threatened by it。 They conjured up a double vision of the fever…haunted country and the vessel that may carry them away； for is it not possible that they are included in the somewhat ill…defined category of the politicians menaced？ They experienced the lurking fear that the men of the Convention must have felt whom the vague speeches of Robespierre threatened with the guillotine； and who； under the influence of this fear； invariably yielded to him。
It is all to the interest of the leaders to indulge in the most improbable exaggerations。 The speaker of whom I have just cited a sentence was able to affirm； without arousing violent protestations； that bankers and priests had subsidised the throwers of bombs； and that the directors of the great financial companies deserve the same punishment as anarchists。 Affirmations of this kind are always effective with crowds。 The affirmation is never too violent； the declamation never too threatening。 Nothing intimidates the audience more than this sort of eloquence。 Those present are afraid that if they protest they will be put down as traitors or accomplices。
As I have said； this peculiar style of eloquence has ever been of sovereign effect in all assemblies。 In times of crisis its power is still further accentuated。 The speeches of the great orators of the assemblies of the French Revolution are very interesting reading from this point of view。 At every instant they thought themselves obliged to pause in order to denounce crime and exalt virtue； after which they would burst forth into imprecations against tyrants； and swear to live free men or perish。 Those present rose to their feet； applauded furiously； and then； calmed； took their seats again。
On occasion； the leader may be intelligent and highly educated； but the possession of these qualities does him； as a rule； more harm than good。 By showing how complex things are； by allowing of explanation and promoting comprehension； intelligence always renders its owner indulgent； and blunts； in a large measure； that intensity and violence of conviction needful for apostles。 The great leaders of crowds of all ages； and those of the Revolution in particular； have been of lamentably narrow intellect； while it is precisely those whose intelligence has been the most restricted who have exercised the greatest influence。
The speeches of the most celebrated of them； of Robespierre； frequently astound one by their incoherence： by merely reading them no plausible explanation is to be found of the great part played by the powerful dictator：
〃The commonplaces and redundancies of pedagogic eloquence and Latin culture at the service of a mind childish rather than undistinguished； and limited in its notions of attack and defence to the defiant attitude of schoolboys。 Not an idea； not a happy turn of phrase； or a telling hit： a storm of declamation that leaves us bored。 After a dose of this unexhilarating reading one is attempted to exclaim ‘Oh！' with the amiable Camille Desmoulins。〃
It is terrible at times to think of the power that strong conviction combined with extreme narrowness of mind gives a man possessing prestige。 It is none the less necessary that these conditions should be satisfied for a man to ignore obstacles and display strength of will in a high measure。 Crowds instinctively recognise in men of energy and conviction the masters they are always in need of。
In a parliamentary assembly the success of a speech depends almost solely on the prestige possessed by the speaker； and not at all on the arguments he brings forward。 The best proof of this is that when for one cause or another a speaker loses his prestige； he loses simultaneously all his influence； that is； his power of influencing votes at will。
When an unknown speaker comes forward with a speech containing good arguments； but only arguments； the chances are that he will only obtain a hearing。 A Deputy who is a psychologist of insight； M。 Desaubes； has recently traced in the following lines the portrait of the Deputy who lacks prestige：
〃When he takes his place in the tribune he draws a document from his portfolio； spreads it out methodically before him； and makes a start with assurance。
〃He flatters himself that he will implant in the minds of his audience the conviction by which he is himself animated。 He has weighed and reweighed his arguments； he is well primed with figures and proofs； he is certain he will convince his hearers。 In the face of the evidence he is to adduce all resistance would be futile。 He begins； confident in the justice of his cause； and relying upon the attention of his colleagues； whose only anxiety； of course； is to subscribe to the truth。
〃He speaks； and is at once surprised at the restlessness of the House； and a little annoyed by the noise that is being made。
〃How is it silence is not kept？ Why this general inattention？ What are those Deputies thinking about who are engaged in conversation？ What urgent motive has induced this or that Deputy to quit his seat？
〃An expression of uneasiness crosses his face； he frowns and stops。 Encouraged by the President； he begins again； raising his voice。 He is only listened to all the less。 He lends emphasis to his words； and gesticulates： the noise around him increases。 He can no longer hear himself； and again stops； finally； afraid that his silence may provoke the dreaded cry； ‘The Closure！' he starts off again。 The clamour becomes unbearable。〃
When parliamentary assemblies reach a certain pitch of excitement they become identical with ordinary heterogeneous crowds； and their sentiments in consequence present the peculiarity of being always extreme。 They will be seen to commit acts of the greatest heroism or the worst excesses。 The individual is no longer himself； and so entirely is this the case that he will vote measures most adverse to his personal interests。
The history of the French Revolution shows to what an extent assemblies are capable of losing their self…consciousness； and of obeying suggestions most contrary to their interests。 It was an enormous sacrifice for the nobility to renounce its privileges； yet it did so without hesitation on a famous night during the sittings of the Constituant Assembly。 By renouncing their inviolability the men of the Convention placed themselves under a perpetual menace of death and yet they took this step； and were not afraid to decimate their own ranks； though perfectly aware that the scaffold to which they were sending their colleagues to…day might be their own fate to…morrow。 The truth is they had attained to that completely automatic state which I have described elsewhere； and no consideration would hinder them from yielding to the suggestions by which they were hypnotised。 The following passage from the memoirs of one of them； Billaud…Varennes； is absolutely typical on this score： 〃The decisions with which we have been so reproached；〃 he says； 〃WERE NO