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llow because an individual knows Greek or mathematics； is an architect； a veterinary surgeon； a doctor； or a barrister； that he is endowed with a special intelligence of social questions。 All our political economists are highly educated； being for the most part professors or academicians； yet is there a single general questionprotection； bimetallism； &c。on which they have succeeded in agreeing？ The explanation is that their science is only a very attenuated form of our universal ignorance。 With regard to social problems； owing to the number of unknown quantities they offer； men are substantially； equally ignorant。
In consequence； were the electorate solely composed of persons stuffed with sciences their votes would be no better than those emitted at present。 They would be guided in the main by their sentiments and by party spirit。 We should be spared none of the difficulties we now have to contend with； and we should certainly be subjected to the oppressive tyranny of castes。
Whether the suffrage of crowds be restricted or general； whether it be exercised under a republic or a monarchy； in France； in Belgium； in Greece； in Portugal； or in Spain； it is everywhere identical； and； when all is said and done； it is the expression of the unconscious aspirations and needs of the race。 In each country the average opinions of those elected represent the genius of the race； and they will be found not to alter sensibly from one generation to another。
It is seen； then； that we are confronted once more by the fundamental notion of race； which we have come across so often； and on this other notion； which is the outcome of the first； that institutions and governments play but a small part in the life of a people。 Peoples are guided in the main by the genius of their race； that is； by that inherited residue of qualities of which the genius is the sum total。 Race and the slavery of our daily necessities are the mysterious master…causes that rule our destiny。
CHAPTER V
PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLIES
Parliamentary crowds present most of the characteristics common to heterogeneous crowds that are not anonymousThe simplicity of their opinionsTheir suggestibility and its limitsTheir indestructible； fixed opinions and their changed opinionsThe reason of the predominance of indecisionThe role of the leadersThe reason of their prestigeThey are the true masters of an assembly whose votes； on that account； are merely those of a small minorityThe absolute power they exerciseThe elements of their oratorical artPhrases and imagesThe psychological necessity the leaders are under of being in a general way of stubborn convictions and narrow…mindedIt is impossible for a speaker without prestige to obtain recognition for his arguments The exaggeration of the sentiments； whether good or bad； of assemblies At certain moments they become automaticThe sittings of the ConventionCases in which an assembly loses the characteristics of crowdsThe influence of specialists when technical questions ariseThe advantages and dangers of a parliamentary system in all countriesIt is adapted to modern needs； but it involves financial waste and the progressive curtailment of all libertyConclusion。
In parliamentary assemblies we have an example of heterogeneous crowds that are not anonymous。 Although the mode of election of their members varies from epoch to epoch； and from nation to nation； they present very similar characteristics。 In this case the influence of the race makes itself felt to weaken or exaggerate the characteristics common to crowds； but not to prevent their manifestation。 The parliamentary assemblies of the most widely different countries； of Greece； Italy； Portugal； Spain； France； and America present great analogies in their debates and votes； and leave the respective governments face to face with identical difficulties。
Moreover； the parliamentary system represents the ideal of all modern civilised peoples。 The system is the expression of the idea； psychologically erroneous； but generally admitted； that a large gathering of men is much more capable than a small number of coming to a wise and independent decision on a given subject。
The general characteristics of crowds are to be met with in parliamentary assemblies： intellectual simplicity； irritability； suggestibility； the exaggeration of the sentiments and the preponderating influence of a few leaders。 In consequence； however； of their special composition parliamentary crowds offer some distinctive features； which we shall point out shortly。
Simplicity in their opinions is one of their most important characteristics。 In the case of all parties； and more especially so far as the Latin peoples are concerned； an invariable tendency is met with in crowds of this kind to solve the most complicated social problems by the simplest abstract principles and general laws applicable to all cases。 Naturally the principles vary with the party； but owing to the mere fact that the individual members are a part of a crowd； they are always inclined to exaggerate the worth of their principles； and to push them to their extreme consequences。 In consequence parliaments are more especially representative of extreme opinions。
The most perfect example of the ingenuous simplification of opinions peculiar to assemblies is offered by the Jacobins of the French Revolution。 Dogmatic and logical to a man； and their brains full of vague generalities； they busied themselves with the application of fixed…principles without concerning themselves with events。 It has been said of them； with reason； that they went through the Revolution without witnessing it。 With the aid of the very simple dogmas that served them as guide； they imagined they could recast society from top to bottom； and cause a highly refined civilisation to return to a very anterior phase of the social evolution。 The methods they resorted to to realise their dream wore the same stamp of absolute ingenuousness。 They confined themselves； in reality； to destroying what stood in their way。 All of them； moreoverGirondists； the Men of the Mountain； the Thermidorians； &c。were alike animated by the same spirit。
Parliamentary crowds are very open to suggestion； and； as in the case of all crowds； the suggestion comes from leaders possessing prestige； but the suggestibility of parliamentary assemblies has very clearly defined limits； which it is important to point out。
On all questions of local or regional interest every member of an assembly has fixed； unalterable opinions； which no amount of argument can shake。 The talent of a Demosthenes would be powerless to change the vote of a Deputy on such questions as protection or the privilege of distilling alcohol； questions in which the interests of influential electors are involved。 The suggestion emanating from these electors and undergone before the time to vote arrives； sufficiently outweighs suggestions from any other source to annul them and to maintain an absolute fixity of opinion。＇27＇
＇27＇ The following reflection of an English parliamentarian of long experience doubtless applies to these opinions； fixed beforehand； and rendered unalterable by electioneering necessities： 〃