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ong them。 When； by chance； they do elect a man who is their equal； it is as a rule for subsidiary reasonsfor instance； to spite an eminent man； or an influential employer of labour on whom the elector is in daily dependence； and whose master he has the illusion he becomes in this way for a moment。
The possession of prestige does not suffice； however； to assure the success of a candidate。 The elector stickles in particular for the flattery of his greed and vanity。 He must be overwhelmed with the most extravagant blandishments； and there must be no hesitation in making him the most fantastic promises。 If he is a working man it is impossible to go too far in insulting and stigmatising employers of labour。 As for the rival candidate； an effort must be made to destroy his chance by establishing by dint of affirmation； repetition； and contagion that he is an arrant scoundrel； and that it is a matter of common knowledge that he has been guilty of several crimes。 It is； of course； useless to trouble about any semblance of proof。 Should the adversary be ill…acquainted with the psychology of crowds he will try to justify himself by arguments instead of confining himself to replying to one set of affirmations by another； and he will have no chance whatever of being successful。
The candidate's written programme should not be too categorical； since later on his adversaries might bring it up against him； in his verbal programme； however； there cannot be too much exaggeration。 The most important reforms may be fearlessly promised。 At the moment they are made these exaggerations produce a great effect； and they are not binding for the future； it being a matter of constant observation that the elector never troubles himself to know how far the candidate he has returned has followed out the electoral programme he applauded； and in virtue of which the election was supposed to have been secured。
In what precedes； all the factors of persuasion which we have described are to be recognised。 We shall come across them again in the action exerted by words and formulas； whose magical sway we have already insisted upon。 An orator who knows how to make use of these means of persuasion can do what he will with a crowd。 Expressions such as infamous capital； vile exploiters； the admirable working man； the socialisation of wealth； &c。； always produce the same effect； although already somewhat worn by use。 But the candidate who hits on a new formula as devoid as possible of precise meaning； and apt in consequence to flatter the most varied aspirations； infallibly obtains a success。 The sanguinary Spanish revolution of 1873 was brought about by one of these magical phrases of complex meaning on which everybody can put his own interpretation。 A contemporary writer has described the launching of this phrase in terms that deserve to be quoted：
〃The radicals have made the discovery that a centralised republic is a monarchy in disguise； and to humour them the Cortes had unanimously proclaimed a FEDERAL REPUBLIC； though none of the voters could have explained what it was he had just voted for。 This formula； however； delighted everybody； the joy was intoxicating； delirious。 The reign of virtue and happiness had just been inaugurated on earth。 A republican whose opponent refused him the title of federalist considered himself to be mortally insulted。 People addressed each other in the streets with the words： ‘Long live the federal republic！' After which the praises were sung of the mystic virtue of the absence of discipline in the army； and of the autonomy of the soldiers。 What was understood by the ‘federal republic？' There were those who took it to mean the emancipation of the provinces； institutions akin to those of the United States and administrative decentralisation； others had in view the abolition of all authority and the speedy commencement of the great social liquidation。 The socialists of Barcelona and Andalusia stood out for the absolute sovereignty of the communes； they proposed to endow Spain with ten thousand independent municipalities； to legislate on their own account； and their creation to be accompanied by the suppression of the police and the army。 In the southern provinces the insurrection was soon seen to spread from town to town and village to village。 Directly a village had made its pronunciamento its first care was to destroy the telegraph wires and the railway lines so as to cut off all communication with its neighbours and Madrid。 The sorriest hamlet was determined to stand on its own bottom。 Federation had given place to cantonalism； marked by massacres； incendiarism； and every description of brutality； and bloody saturnalia were celebrated throughout the length and breadth of the land。〃
With respect to the influence that may be exerted by reasoning on the minds of electors； to harbour the least doubt on this subject can only be the result of never having read the reports of an electioneering meeting。 In such a gathering affirmations； invectives； and sometimes blows are exchanged； but never arguments。 Should silence be established for a moment it is because some one present； having the reputation of a 〃tough customer；〃 has announced that he is about to heckle the candidate by putting him one of those embarrassing questions which are always the joy of the audience。 The satisfaction； however； of the opposition party is shortlived； for the voice of the questioner is soon drowned in the uproar made by his adversaries。 The following reports of public meetings； chosen from hundreds of similar examples； and taken from the daily papers； may be considered as typical：
〃One of the organisers of the meeting having asked the assembly to elect a president； the storm bursts。 The anarchists leap on to the platform to take the committee table by storm。 The socialists make an energetic defence； blows are exchanged； and each party accuses the other of being spies in the pay of the Government； &c。 。 。 。 A citizen leaves the hall with a black eye。
〃The committee is at length installed as best it may be in the midst of the tumult； and the right to speak devolves upon ‘Comrade' X。
〃The orator starts a vigorous attack on the socialists； who interrupt him with shouts of ‘Idiot； scoundrel； blackguard！' &c。； epithets to which Comrade X。 replies by setting forth a theory according to which the socialists are ‘idiots' or ‘jokers。'〃
〃The Allemanist party had organised yesterday evening； in the Hall of Commerce； in the Rue du Faubourg…du…Temple； a great meeting； preliminary to the workers' fete of the 1st of May。 The watchword of the meeting was ‘Calm and Tranquillity！'
〃Comrade G alludes to the socialists as ‘idiots' and ‘humbugs。'
〃At these words there is an exchange of invectives and orators and audience come to blows。 Chairs； tables； and benches are converted into weapons；〃 &c。； &c。
It is not to be imagined for a moment that this description of discussion is peculiar to a determined class of electors and dependent on their social position。 In every anonymous assembly whatever； though it be composed exclusively of highly educated persons； discussion always assumes the same shape。 I have shown that