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＇23＇ There are pages in the books of the French official professors of history that are very curious from this point of view。 They prove too how little the critical spirit is developed by the system of university education in vogue in France。 I cite as an example the following extracts from the 〃French Revolution〃 of M。 Rambaud； professor of history at the Sorbonne：
〃The taking of the Bastille was a culminating event in the history not only of France； but of all Europe； and inaugurated a new epoch in the history of the world！〃
With respect to Robespierre； we learn with stupefaction that 〃his dictatorship was based more especially on opinion； persuasion； and moral authority； it was a sort of pontificate in the hands of a virtuous man！〃 （pp。 91 and 220。）
At the present day； as the result of discussion and analysis； all opinions are losing their prestige； their distinctive features are rapidly worn away； and few survive capable of arousing our enthusiasm。 The man of modern times is more and more a prey to indifference。
The general wearing away of opinions should not be too greatly deplored。 That it is a symptom of decadence in the life of a people cannot be contested。 It is certain that men of immense； of almost supernatural insight； that apostles； leaders of crowdsmen； in a word； of genuine and strong convictionsexert a far greater force than men who deny； who criticise； or who are indifferent； but it must not be forgotten that； given the power possessed at present by crowds； were a single opinion to acquire sufficient prestige to enforce its general acceptance； it would soon be endowed with so tyrannical a strength that everything would have to bend before it； and the era of free discussion would be closed for a long time。 Crowds are occasionally easy…going masters； as were Heliogabalus and Tiberius； but they are also violently capricious。 A civilisation； when the moment has come for crowds to acquire a high hand over it； is at the mercy of too many chances to endure for long。 Could anything postpone for a while the hour of its ruin； it would be precisely the extreme instability of the opinions of crowds and their growing indifference with respect to all general beliefs。
BOOK III
THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF CROWDS
CHAPTER I
THE CLASSIFICATION OF CROWDS
The general divisions of crowdsTheir classification。 1。 HETEROGENEOUS CROWDS。 Different varieties of themThe influence of raceThe spirit of the crowd is weak in proportion as the spirit of the race is strongThe spirit of the race represents the civilised state and the spirit of the crowd the barbarian state。 2。 HOMOGENEOUS CROWDS。 Their different varietiesSects； castes； and classes。
We have sketched in this work the general characteristics common to psychological crowds。 It remains to point out the particular characteristics which accompany those of a general order in the different categories of collectivities； when they are transformed into a crowd under the influences of the proper exciting causes。 We will； first of all； set forth in a few words a classification of crowds。
Our starting…point will be the simple multitude。 Its most inferior form is met with when the multitude is composed of individuals belonging to different races。 In this case its only common bond of union is the will； more or less respected of a chief。 The barbarians of very diverse origin who during several centuries invaded the Roman Empire； may be cited as a specimen of multitudes of this kind。
On a higher level than these multitudes composed of different races are those which under certain influences have acquired common characteristics； and have ended by forming a single race。 They present at times characteristics peculiar to crowds； but these characteristics are overruled to a greater or less extent by racial considerations。
These two kinds of multitudes may； under certain influences investigated in this work； be transformed into organised or psychological crowds。 We shall break up these organised crowds into the following divisions：
1。 Anonymous crowds （street crowds； for example）。 A。 Heterogeneous 2。 Crowds not anonymous crowds。 （juries； parliamentary assemblies； &c。）。 1。 Sects （political sects； religious sects； &c。）。 2。 Castes （the military caste； B。 Homogeneous the priestly caste； the crowds。 working caste； &c。）。 3。 Classes （the middle classes； the peasant classes； &c。）。
We will point out briefly the distinguishing characteristics of these different categories of crowds。
1。 HETEROGENEOUS CROWDS
It is these collectivities whose characteristics have been studied in this volume。 They are composed of individuals of any description； of any profession； and any degree of intelligence。
We are now aware that by the mere fact that men form part of a crowd engaged in action； their collective psychology differs essentially from their individual psychology； and their intelligence is affected by this differentiation。 We have seen that intelligence is without influence in collectivities； they being solely under the sway of unconscious sentiments。
A fundamental factor； that of race； allows of a tolerably thorough differentiation of the various heterogeneous crowds。
We have often referred already to the part played by race； and have shown it to be the most powerful of the factors capable of determining men's actions。 Its action is also to be traced in the character of crowds。 A crowd composed of individuals assembled at haphazard； but all of them Englishmen or Chinamen； will differ widely from another crowd also composed of individuals of any and every description； but of other racesRussians； Frenchmen； or Spaniards； for example。
The wide divergencies which their inherited mental constitution creates in men's modes of feeling and thinking at once come into prominence when； which rarely happens； circumstances gather together in the same crowd and in fairly equal proportions individuals of different nationality； and this occurs； however identical in appearance be the interests which provoked the gathering。 The efforts made by the socialists to assemble in great congresses the representatives of the working…class populations of different countries； have always ended in the most pronounced discord。 A Latin crowd； however revolutionary or however conservative it be supposed； will invariably appeal to the intervention of the State to realise its demands。 It is always distinguished by a marked tendency towards centralisation and by a leaning； more or less pronounced； in favour of a dictatorship。 An English or an American crowd； on the contrary； sets no store on the State； and only appeals to private initiative。 A French crowd lays particular weight on equality and an English crowd on liberty。 These differences of race explain how it is that there are almost as many different forms of socialism and democracy as