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public…house as the result of affirmation； repetition； and contagion； and indeed the mode of creation of the beliefs of crowds of every age has scarcely been different。 Renan justly institutes a comparison between the first founders of Christianity and 〃the socialist working men spreading their ideas from public…house to public…house〃； while Voltaire had already observed in connection with the Christian religion that 〃for more than a hundred years it was only embraced by the vilest riff…raff。〃
It will be noted that in cases analogous to those I have just cited； contagion； after having been at work among the popular classes； has spread to the higher classes of society。 This is what we see happening at the present day with regard to the socialist doctrines which are beginning to be held by those who will yet be their first victims。 Contagion is so powerful a force that even the sentiment of personal interest disappears under its action。
This is the explanation of the fact that every opinion adopted by the populace always ends in implanting itself with great vigour in the highest social strata； however obvious be the absurdity of the triumphant opinion。 This reaction of the lower upon the higher social classes is the more curious； owing to the circumstance that the beliefs of the crowd always have their origin to a greater or less extent in some higher idea； which has often remained without influence in the sphere in which it was evolved。 Leaders and agitators； subjugated by this higher idea； take hold of it； distort it and create a sect which distorts it afresh； and then propagates it amongst the masses； who carry the process of deformation still further。 Become a popular truth the idea returns； as it were； to its source and exerts an influence on the upper classes of a nation。 In the long run it is intelligence that shapes the destiny of the world； but very indirectly。 The philosophers who evolve ideas have long since returned to dust； when； as the result of the process I have just described； the fruit of their reflection ends by triumphing。
3。 PRESTIGE
Great power is given to ideas propagated by affirmation； repetition； and contagion by the circumstance that they acquire in time that mysterious force known as prestige。
Whatever has been a ruling power in the world； whether it be ideas or men； has in the main enforced its authority by means of that irresistible force expressed by the word 〃prestige。〃 The term is one whose meaning is grasped by everybody； but the word is employed in ways too different for it to be easy to define it。 Prestige may involve such sentiments as admiration or fear。 Occasionally even these sentiments are its basis； but it can perfectly well exist without them。 The greatest measure of prestige is possessed by the dead； by beings； that is； of whom we do not stand in fearby Alexander； Caesar； Mahomet； and Buddha； for example。 On the other hand； there are fictive beings whom we do not admirethe monstrous divinities of the subterranean temples of India； for instancebut who strike us nevertheless as endowed with a great prestige。
Prestige in reality is a sort of domination exercised on our mind by an individual； a work； or an idea。 This domination entirely paralyses our critical faculty； and fills our soul with astonishment and respect。 The sentiment provoked is inexplicable； like all sentiments； but it would appear to be of the same kind as the fascination to which a magnetised person is subjected。 Prestige is the mainspring of all authority。 Neither gods； kings； nor women have ever reigned without it。
The various kinds of prestige may be grouped under two principal heads： acquired prestige and personal prestige。 Acquired prestige is that resulting from name； fortune； and reputation。 It may be independent of personal prestige。 Personal prestige； on the contrary； is something essentially peculiar to the individual； it may coexist with reputation； glory； and fortune； or be strengthened by them； but it is perfectly capable of existing in their absence。
Acquired or artificial prestige is much the most common。 The mere fact that an individual occupies a certain position； possesses a certain fortune； or bears certain titles； endows him with prestige； however slight his own personal worth。 A soldier in uniform； a judge in his robes； always enjoys prestige。 Pascal has very properly noted the necessity for judges of robes and wigs。 Without them they would be stripped of half their authority。 The most unbending socialist is always somewhat impressed by the sight of a prince or a marquis； and the assumption of such titles makes the robbing of tradesmen an easy matter。＇18＇
＇18＇ The influence of titles； decorations； and uniforms on crowds is to be traced in all countries； even in those in which the sentiment of personal independence is the most strongly developed。 I quote in this connection a curious passage from a recent book of travel； on the prestige enjoyed in England by great persons。
〃I had observed； under various circumstances； the peculiar sort of intoxication produced in the most reasonable Englishmen by the contact or sight of an English peer。
〃Provided his fortune enables him to keep up his rank； he is sure of their affection in advance； and brought into contact with him they are so enchanted as to put up with anything at his hands。 They may be seen to redden with pleasure at his approach； and if he speaks to them their suppressed joy increases their redness； and causes their eyes to gleam with unusual brilliance。 Respect for nobility is in their blood； so to speak； as with Spaniards the love of dancing； with Germans that of music； and with Frenchmen the liking for revolutions。 Their passion for horses and Shakespeare is less violent； the satisfaction and pride they derive from these sources a less integral part of their being。 There is a considerable sale for books dealing with the peerage； and go where one will they are to be found； like the Bible； in all hands。〃
The prestige of which I have just spoken is exercised by persons； side by side with it may be placed that exercised by opinions； literary and artistic works； &c。 Prestige of the latter kind is most often merely the result of accumulated repetitions。 History； literary and artistic history especially； being nothing more than the repetition of identical judgments； which nobody endeavours to verify； every one ends by repeating what he learnt at school； till there come to be names and things which nobody would venture to meddle with。 For a modern reader the perusal of Homer results incontestably in immense boredom； but who would venture to say so？ The Parthenon； in its present state； is a wretched ruin； utterly destitute of interest； but it is endowed with such prestige that it does not appear to us as it really is； but with all its accompaniment of historic memories。 The special characteristic of prestige is to prevent us seeing things as they are and to entirely paralyse our judgment。 Crowds always； and individuals as a rule； stand in need of ready…made opinions on all subjects。 The popularity of these opinions is independent of the measure of truth or error they contain； and i