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and modern times have to be reached for their veracity to be merely contested。 The Middle Ages and the Renaissance possessed many enlightened men； but not a single man who attained by reasoning to an appreciation of the childish side of his superstitions； or who promulgated even a slight doubt as to the misdeeds of the devil or the necessity of burning sorcerers。
Should it be regretted that crowds are never guided by reason？ We would not venture to affirm it。 Without a doubt human reason would not have availed to spur humanity along the path of civilisation with the ardour and hardihood its illusions have done。 These illusions； the offspring of those unconscious forces by which we are led； were doubtless necessary。 Every race carries in its mental constitution the laws of its destiny； and it is； perhaps； these laws that it obeys with a resistless impulse； even in the case of those of its impulses which apparently are the most unreasoned。 It seems at times as if nations were submitted to secret forces analogous to those which compel the acorn to transform itself into an oak or a comet to follow its orbit。
What little insight we can get into these forces must be sought for in the general course of the evolution of a people； and not in the isolated facts from which this evolution appears at times to proceed。 Were these facts alone to be taken into consideration； history would seem to be the result of a series of improbable chances。 It was improbable that a Galilean carpenter should become for two thousand years an all…powerful God in whose name the most important civilisations were founded； improbable； too； that a few bands of Arabs； emerging from their deserts； should conquer the greater part of the old Graco…Roman world； and establish an empire greater than that of Alexander； improbable； again； that in Europe； at an advanced period of its development； and when authority throughout it had been systematically hierarchised； an obscure lieutenant of artillery should have succeeded in reigning over a multitude of peoples and kings。
Let us leave reason； then； to philosophers； and not insist too strongly on its intervention in the governing of men。 It is not by reason； but most often in spite of it； that are created those sentiments that are the mainsprings of all civilisationsentiments such as honour； self… sacrifice； religious faith； patriotism； and the love of glory。
CHAPTER III
THE LEADERS OF CROWDS AND THEIR MEANS OF PERSUASION
1。 THE LEADERS OF CROWDS。 The instinctive need of all beings forming a crowd to obey a leaderThe psychology of the leaders of crowdsThey alone can endow crowds with faith and organise themThe leaders forcibly despoticClassification of the leadersThe part played by the will。 2。 THE MEANS OF ACTION OF THE LEADERS。 Affirmation； repetition； contagionThe respective part of these different factorsThe way in which contagion may spread from the lower to the upper classes in a societyA popular opinion soon becomes a general opinion。 3。 PRESTIGE。 Definition of prestige and classification of its different kindsAcquired prestige and personal prestigeVarious examplesThe way in which prestige is destroyed。
We are now acquainted with the mental constitution of crowds； and we also know what are the motives capable of making an impression on their mind。 It remains to investigate how these motives may be set in action； and by whom they may usefully be turned to practical account。
1。 THE LEADERS OF CROWDS。
As soon as a certain number of living beings are gathered together； whether they be animals or men； they place themselves instinctively under the authority of a chief。
In the case of human crowds the chief is often nothing more than a ringleader or agitator； but as such he plays a considerable part。 His will is the nucleus around which the opinions of the crowd are grouped and attain to identity。 He constitutes the first element towards the organisation of heterogeneous crowds； and paves the way for their organisation in sects； in the meantime he directs them。 A crowd is a servile flock that is incapable of ever doing without a master。
The leader has most often started as one of the led。 He has himself been hypnotised by the idea； whose apostle he has since become。 It has taken possession of him to such a degree that everything outside it vanishes； and that every contrary opinion appears to him an error or a superstition。 An example in point is Robespierre； hypnotised by the philosophical ideas of Rousseau； and employing the methods of the Inquisition to propagate them。
The leaders we speak of are more frequently men of action than thinkers。 They are not gifted with keen foresight； nor could they be； as this quality generally conduces to doubt and inactivity。 They are especially recruited from the ranks of those morbidly nervous； excitable； half…deranged persons who are bordering on madness。 However absurd may be the idea they uphold or the goal they pursue； their convictions are so strong that all reasoning is lost upon them。 Contempt and persecution do not affect them； or only serve to excite them the more。 They sacrifice their personal interest； their familyeverything。 The very instinct of self…preservation is entirely obliterated in them； and so much so that often the only recompense they solicit is that of martyrdom。 The intensity of their faith gives great power of suggestion to their words。 The multitude is always ready to listen to the strong…willed man； who knows how to impose himself upon it。 Men gathered in a crowd lose all force of will； and turn instinctively to the person who possesses the quality they lack。
Nations have never lacked leaders； but all of the latter have by no means been animated by those strong convictions proper to apostles。 These leaders are often subtle rhetoricians； seeking only their own personal interest； and endeavouring to persuade by flattering base instincts。 The influence they can assert in this manner may be very great； but it is always ephemeral。 The men of ardent convictions who have stirred the soul of crowds； the Peter the Hermits； the Luthers； the Savonarolas； the men of the French Revolution； have only exercised their fascination after having been themselves fascinated first of all by a creed。 They are then able to call up in the souls of their fellows that formidable force known as faith； which renders a man the absolute slave of his dream。
The arousing of faithwhether religious； political； or social； whether faith in a work； in a person； or an ideahas always been the function of the great leaders of crowds； and it is on this account that their influence is always very great。 Of all the forces at the disposal of humanity； faith has always been one of the most tremendous； and the gospel rightly attributes to it the power of moving mountains。 To endow a man with faith is to multiply his strength tenfold。 The great events of history have been brought about by obscure believers； who have had little beyond their faith in their favour。 It is not by the aid of the learned or of philosophers； and still less of sceptics； that have been built up the great religions which have swayed the world； or the vas