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erous be destroyed。 To this end； however； it is necessary that the experience should take place on a very large scale； and be very frequently repeated。 The experiences undergone by one generation are useless； as a rule； for the generation that follows； which is the reason why historical facts； cited with a view to demonstration； serve no purpose。 Their only utility is to prove to what an extent experiences need to be repeated from age to age to exert any influence； or to be successful in merely shaking an erroneous opinion when it is solidly implanted in the mind of the masses。
Our century and that which preceded it will doubtless be alluded to by historians as an era of curious experiments； which in no other age have been tried in such number。
The most gigantic of these experiments was the French Revolution。 To find out that a society is not to be refashioned from top to bottom in accordance with the dictates of pure reason； it was necessary that several millions of men should be massacred and that Europe should be profoundly disturbed for a period of twenty years。 To prove to us experimentally that dictators cost the nations who acclaim them dear； two ruinous experiences have been required in fifty years； and in spite of their clearness they do not seem to have been sufficiently convincing。 The first； nevertheless； cost three millions of men and an invasion； the second involved a loss of territory； and carried in its wake the necessity for permanent armies。 A third was almost attempted not long since； and will assuredly be attempted one day。 To bring an entire nation to admit that the huge German army was not； as was currently alleged thirty years ago； a sort of harmless national guard；＇15＇ the terrible war which cost us so dear had to take place。 To bring about the recognition that Protection ruins the nations who adopt it； at least twenty years of disastrous experience will be needful。 These examples might be indefinitely multiplied。
＇15＇ The opinion of the crowd was formed in this case by those rough…and…ready associations of dissimilar things； the mechanism of which I have previously explained。 The French national guard of that period； being composed of peaceable shopkeepers； utterly lacking in discipline and quite incapable of being taken seriously； whatever bore a similar name； evoked the same conception and was considered in consequence as harmless。 The error of the crowd was shared at the time by its leaders； as happens so often in connection with opinions dealing with generalisations。 In a speech made in the Chamber on the 31st of December； 1867； and quoted in a book by M。 E。 Ollivier that has appeared recently； a statesman who often followed the opinion of the crowd but was never in advance of itI allude to M。 Thiersdeclared that Prussia only possessed a national guard analogous to that of France； and in consequence without importance； in addition to a regular army about equal to the French regular army； assertions about as accurate as the predictions of the same statesman as to the insignificant future reserved for railways。
4。 REASON
In enumerating the factors capable of making an impression on the minds of crowds all mention of reason might be dispensed with； were it not necessary to point out the negative value of its influence。
We have already shown that crowds are not to be influenced by reasoning； and can only comprehend rough…and…ready associations of ideas。 The orators who know how to make an impression upon them always appeal in consequence to their sentiments and never to their reason。 The laws of logic have no action on crowds。＇16＇ To bring home conviction to crowds it is necessary first of all to thoroughly comprehend the sentiments by which they are animated； to pretend to share these sentiments； then to endeavour to modify them by calling up； by means of rudimentary associations； certain eminently suggestive notions； to be capable； if need be； of going back to the point of view from which a start was made； and； above all； to divine from instant to instant the sentiments to which one's discourse is giving birth。 This necessity of ceaselessly varying one's language in accordance with the effect produced at the moment of speaking deprives from the outset a prepared and studied harangue of all efficaciousness。 In such a speech the orator follows his own line of thought； not that of his hearers； and from this fact alone his influence is annihilated。
＇16＇ My first observations with regard to the art of impressing crowds and touching the slight assistance to be derived in this connection from the rules of logic date back to the seige of Paris； to the day when I saw conducted to the Louvre； where the Government was then sitting； Marshal V； whom a furious crowd asserted they had surprised in the act of taking the plans of the fortifications to sell them to the Prussians。 A member of the Government （G。 P）； a very celebrated orator； came out to harangue the crowd； which was demanding the immediate execution of the prisoner。 I had expected that the speaker would point out the absurdity of the accusation by remarking that the accused Marshal was positively one of those who had constructed the fortifications； the plan of which； moreover； was on sale at every booksellers。 To my immense stupefactionI was very young thenthe speech was on quite different lines。 〃Justice shall be done；〃 exclaimed the orator； advancing towards the prisoner； 〃and pitiless justice。 Let the Government of the National Defence conclude your inquiry。 In the meantime we will keep the prisoner in custody。〃 At once calmed by this apparent concession； the crowd broke up； and a quarter of an hour later the Marshal was able to return home。 He would infallibly have been torn in pieces had the speaker treated the infuriated crowd to the logical arguments that my extreme youth induced me to consider as very convincing。
Logical minds； accustomed to be convinced by a chain of somewhat close reasoning； cannot avoid having recourse to this mode of persuasion when addressing crowds； and the inability of their arguments always surprises them。 〃The usual mathematical consequences based on the syllogismthat is； on associations of identitiesare imperative 。 。 。〃 writes a logician。 〃This imperativeness would enforce the assent even of an inorganic mass were it capable of following associations of identities。〃 This is doubtless true； but a crowd is no more capable than an inorganic mass of following such associations； nor even of understanding them。 If the attempt be made to convince by reasoning primitive mindssavages or children； for instancethe slight value possessed by this method of arguing will be understood。
It is not even necessary to descend so low as primitive beings to obtain an insight into the utter powerlessness of reasoning when it has to fight against sentiment。 Let us merely call to mind how tenacious； for centuries long； have been religious superstitions in contradiction with the simplest logic。 For nearly two thousand years the most luminous geniuses have bowed before their laws； and modern times have to be reached for their veracity to be merely contested。 The Middle Ages and