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ro dear to crowds will always have the semblance of a Caesar。 His insignia attracts them； his authority overawes them； and his sword instils them with fear。
A crowd is always ready to revolt against a feeble； and to bow down servilely before a strong authority。 Should the strength of an authority be intermittent； the crowd； always obedient to its extreme sentiments； passes alternately from anarchy to servitude； and from servitude to anarchy。
However； to believe in the predominance among crowds of revolutionary instincts would be to entirely misconstrue their psychology。 It is merely their tendency to violence that deceives us on this point。 Their rebellious and destructive outbursts are always very transitory。 Crowds are too much governed by unconscious considerations； and too much subject in consequence to secular hereditary influences not to be extremely conservative。 Abandoned to themselves； they soon weary of disorder； and instinctively turn to servitude。 It was the proudest and most untractable of the Jacobins who acclaimed Bonaparte with greatest energy when he suppressed all liberty and made his hand of iron severely felt。
It is difficult to understand history； and popular revolutions in particular； if one does not take sufficiently into account the profoundly conservative instincts of crowds。 They may be desirous； it is true； of changing the names of their institutions； and to obtain these changes they accomplish at times even violent revolutions； but the essence of these institutions is too much the expression of the hereditary needs of the race for them not invariably to abide by it。 Their incessant mobility only exerts its influence on quite superficial matters。 In fact they possess conservative instincts as indestructible as those of all primitive beings。 Their fetish… like respect for all traditions is absolute； their unconscious horror of all novelty capable of changing the essential conditions of their existence is very deeply rooted。 Had democracies possessed the power they wield to…day at the time of the invention of mechanical looms or of the introduction of steam…power and of railways； the realisation of these inventions would have been impossible； or would have been achieved at the cost of revolutions and repeated massacres。 It is fortunate for the progress of civilisation that the power of crowds only began to exist when the great discoveries of science and industry had already been effected。
5。 THE MORALITY OF CROWDS。
Taking the word 〃morality〃 to mean constant respect for certain social conventions； and the permanent repression of selfish impulses； it is quite evident that crowds are too impulsive and too mobile to be moral。 If； however； we include in the term morality the transitory display of certain qualities such as abnegation； self…sacrifice； disinterestedness； devotion； and the need of equity； we may say； on the contrary； that crowds may exhibit at times a very lofty morality。
The few psychologists who have studied crowds have only considered them from the point of view of their criminal acts； and noticing how frequent these acts are； they have come to the conclusion that the moral standard of crowds is very low。
Doubtless this is often the case； but why？ Simply because our savage； destructive instincts are the inheritance left dormant in all of us from the primitive ages。 In the life of the isolated individual it would be dangerous for him to gratify these instincts； while his absorption in an irresponsible crowd； in which in consequence he is assured of impunity； gives him entire liberty to follow them。 Being unable； in the ordinary course of events； to exercise these destructive instincts on our fellow… men； we confine ourselves to exercising them on animals。 The passion； so widespread； for the chase and the acts of ferocity of crowds proceed from one and the same source。 A crowd which slowly slaughters a defenceless victim displays a very cowardly ferocity； but for the philosopher this ferocity is very closely related to that of the huntsmen who gather in dozens for the pleasure of taking part in the pursuit and killing of a luckless stag by their hounds。
A crowd may be guilty of murder； incendiarism； and every kind of crime； but it is also capable of very lofty acts of devotion； sacrifice； and disinterestedness； of acts much loftier indeed than those of which the isolated individual is capable。 Appeals to sentiments of glory； honour； and patriotism are particularly likely to influence the individual forming part of a crowd； and often to the extent of obtaining from him the sacrifice of his life。 History is rich in examples analogous to those furnished by the Crusaders and the volunteers of 1793。 Collectivities alone are capable of great disinterestedness and great devotion。 How numerous are the crowds that have heroically faced death for beliefs； ideas； and phrases that they scarcely understood！ The crowds that go on strike do so far more in obedience to an order than to obtain an increase of the slender salary with which they make shift。 Personal interest is very rarely a powerful motive force with crowds； while it is almost the exclusive motive of the conduct of the isolated individual。 It is assuredly not self…interest that has guided crowds in so many wars； incomprehensible as a rule to their intelligencewars in which they have allowed themselves to be massacred as easily as the larks hypnotised by the mirror of the hunter。
Even in the case of absolute scoundrels it often happens that the mere fact of their being in a crowd endows them for the moment with very strict principles of morality。 Taine calls attention to the fact that the perpetrators of the September massacres deposited on the table of the committees the pocket…books and jewels they had found on their victims； and with which they could easily have been able to make away。 The howling； swarming； ragged crowd which invaded the Tuileries during the revolution of 1848 did not lay hands on any of the objects that excited its astonishment； and one of which would have meant bread for many days。
This moralisation of the individual by the crowd is not certainly a constant rule； but it is a rule frequently observed。 It is even observed in circumstances much less grave than those I have just cited。 I have remarked that in the theatre a crowd exacts from the hero of the piece exaggerated virtues； and it is a commonplace observation that an assembly； even though composed of inferior elements； shows itself as a rule very prudish。 The debauchee； the souteneur； the rough often break out into murmurs at a slightly risky scene or expression； though they be very harmless in comparison with their customary conversation。
If； then； crowds often abandon themselves to low instincts； they also set the example at times of acts of lofty morality。 If disinterestedness； resignation； and absolute devotion to a real or chimerical ideal are moral virtues； it may be said that crowds often possess these virtues to a degree rarely attained by the wisest philosophers。 Doubtless they practice them unconsciously； but that is of small import。 We should not complain too much that crowds are more especia