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cognition to which they belong； in other words； by means of
transcendental reflection。 We may； therefore； with justice say； that
logical reflection is mere comparison； for in it no account is taken
of the faculty of cognition to which the given conceptions belong； and
they are consequently； as far as regards their origin； to be treated
as homogeneous； while transcendental reflection （which applies to
the objects themselves） contains the ground of the possibility of
objective comparison of representations with each other； and is
therefore very different from the former； because the faculties of
cognition to which they belong are not even the same。 Transcendental
reflection is a duty which no one can neglect who wishes to
establish an a priori judgement upon things。 We shall now proceed to
fulfil this duty； and thereby throw not a little light on the question
as to the determination of the proper business of the understanding。
1。 Identity and Difference。 When an object is presented to us
several times； but always with the same internal determinations
（qualitas et quantitas）； it； if an object of pure understanding； is
always the same； not several things； but only one thing （numerica
identitas）； but if a phenomenon； we do not concern ourselves with
comparing the conception of the thing with the conception of some
other； but； although they may be in this respect perfectly the same；
the difference of place at the same time is a sufficient ground for
asserting the numerical difference of these objects （of sense）。
Thus； in the case of two drops of water； we may make complete
abstraction of all internal difference （quality and quantity）； and；
the fact that they are intuited at the same time in different
places； is sufficient to justify us in holding them to be
numerically different。 Leibnitz regarded phenomena as things in
themselves； consequently as intelligibilia； that is； objects of pure
understanding （although； on account of the confused nature of their
representations； he gave them the name of phenomena）； and in this case
his principle of the indiscernible （principium identatis
indiscernibilium） is not to be impugned。 But； as phenomena are objects
of sensibility； and； as the understanding； in respect of them； must be
employed empirically and not purely or transcendentally； plurality and
numerical difference are given by space itself as the condition of
external phenomena。 For one part of space； although it may be
perfectly similar and equal to another part； is still without it；
and for this reason alone is different from the latter； which is added
to it in order to make up a greater space。 It follows that this must
hold good of all things that are in the different parts of space at
the same time； however similar and equal one may be to another。
2。 Agreement and Opposition。 When reality is represented by the pure
understanding （realitas noumenon）； opposition between realities is
incogitable… such a relation； that is； that when these realities are
connected in one subject； they annihilate the effects of each other
and may be represented in the formula 3 … 3 = 0。 On the other hand；
the real in a phenomenon （realitas phaenomenon） may very well be in
mutual opposition； and； when united in the same subject； the one may
completely or in part annihilate the effect or consequence of the
other； as in the case of two moving forces in the same straight line
drawing or impelling a point in opposite directions； or in the case of
a pleasure counterbalancing a certain amount of pain。
3。 The Internal and External。 In an object of the pure
understanding； only that is internal which has no relation （as regards
its existence） to anything different from itself。 On the other hand；
the internal determinations of a substantia phaenomenon in space are
nothing but relations； and it is itself nothing more than a complex of
mere relations。 Substance in space we are cognizant of only through
forces operative in it； either drawing others towards itself
（attraction）； or preventing others from forcing into itself （repulsion
and impenetrability）。 We know no other properties that make up the
conception of substance phenomenal in space； and which we term matter。
On the other hand； as an object of the pure understanding； every
substance must have internal determination and forces。 But what
other internal attributes of such an object can I think than those
which my internal sense presents to me？ That； to wit； which in
either itself thought； or something analogous to it。 Hence Leibnitz；
who looked upon things as noumena； after denying them everything
like external relation； and therefore also composition or combination；
declared that all substances； even the component parts of matter； were
simple substances with powers of representation； in one word； monads。
4。 Matter and Form。 These two conceptions lie at the foundation of
all other reflection； so inseparably are they connected with every
mode of exercising the understanding。 The former denotes the
determinable in general； the second its determination； both in a
transcendental sense； abstraction being made of every difference in
that which is given； and of the mode in which it is determined。
Logicians formerly termed the universal； matter； the specific
difference of this or that part of the universal； form。 In a judgement
one may call the given conceptions logical matter （for the judgement）；
the relation of these to each other （by means of the copula）； the form
of the judgement。 In an object； the composite parts thereof
（essentialia） are the matter； the mode in which they are connected
in the object； the form。 In respect to things in general； unlimited
reality was regarded as the matter of all possibility； the
limitation thereof （negation） as the form； by which one thing is
distinguished from another according to transcendental conceptions。
The understanding demands that something be given （at least in the
conception）； in order to be able to determine it in a certain
manner。 Hence； in a conception of the pure understanding； the matter
precedes the form； and for this reason Leibnitz first assumed the
existence of things （monads） and of an internal power of
representation in them； in order to found upon this their external
relation and the community their state （that is； of their
representations）。 Hence； with him； space and time were possible… the
former through the relation of substances； the latter through the
connection of their determinations with each other； as causes and
effects。 And so would it really be； if the pure understanding were
capable of an immediate application to objects； and if space and
time were determinations of things in themselves。 But being merely
sensuous intuitions； in which we determine all objects solely as
phenomena； the form of intuition （as a subjective property of
sensibility） must antecede all matter （sensations）； consequently space
and time must antecede all phenomena and