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possible is； in all times； one of man's great needs； and； in our days；
it is his greatest need。 There are two reasons for this； one natural
and the other historical。 …
By nature Man is an individual； that is to say a small distinct world
in himself； a center apart in an enclosed circle； a detached organism
complete in itself and which suffers when his spontaneous inclinations
are frustrated by the intervention of an outside force。
The passage of time has made him a complicated organism； upon which
three or four religions； five or six civilizations； thirty centuries
of rich culture have left their imprint； in which its acquisitions are
combined together； wherein inherited qualities are crossbred； wherein
special traits have accumulated in such a way as to produce the most
original and the most sensitive of beings。 As civilization increases；
so does his complexity： with the result that man's originality
strengthens and his sensitivity become keener； from which it follows
that the more civilized he becomes； the greater his repugnance to
constraint and uniformity。
At the present day； （1880）； each of us is the terminal and peculiar
product of a vast elaboration of which the diverse stages occur in
this order but once； a plant unique of its species； a solitary
individual of superior and finer essence which； with its own inward
structure and its own inalienable type； can bear no other than its own
characteristic fruit。 Nothing could be more adverse to the interest
of the oak than to be tortured into bearing the apples of the apple
tree； nothing could be more adverse to the interests of the apple tree
than to be tortured into bearing acorns； nothing could be more opposed
to the interests of both oak and apple tree； also of other trees； than
to be pruned； shaped and twisted so as all to grow after a forced
model； delineated on paper according to the rigid and limited
imagination of a surveyor。 The least possible constraint is；
therefore； everybody's chief interest； if one particular restrictive
agency is established； it is that every one may be preserved by if
from other more powerful constraints； especially those which the
foreigner and evil…doer would impose。 Up to that point； and not
further； its intervention is beneficial； beyond that point； it becomes
one of the evils it is intended to forestall。 Such then； if the
common weal is to be looked after； the sole office of the State is；
1。 to prevent constraint and； therefore； never to use it except to
prevent worse constraints；
2。 to secure respect for each individual in his own physical and
moral domain； never to encroach on this except for that purpose and
then to withdraw immediately；
3。 to abstain from all indiscreet meddling； and yet more； as far as
is practicable； without any sacrifice of public security；
4。 to reduce old assessments； to exact only a minimum of subsidies
and services；
5。 to gradually limit even useful action；
6。 to set itself as few tasks as possible；
7。 to let each one have all the room possible and the maximum of
initiative；
8。 to slowly abandon monopolies；
9。 to refrain from competition with private parties；
10。 to rid itself of functions which these private parties can
fulfill equally well …
and we see that the limits assigned to the State by the public
interest （l'intérêt commun） correspond to those stipulated by duty and
justice。
VI。
Indirect common interest。 … This consists in the most economical and
most productive employment of spontaneous forces。 … Difference
between voluntary labor and forced labor。 … Sources of man's
spontaneous action。 Conditions of their energy； work and products。 …
Motives for leaving them under personal control。 … Extent of the
private domain。 … Individuals might voluntarily extend it。 … What is
left becomes the domain of the State。 … Obligatory functions of the
State。 … Optional functions of the State。
Let us now take into consideration； no longer the direct； but the
indirect interest of all。 Instead of considering individuals let us
concern ourselves with their works。 Let us regard human society as a
material and spiritual workshop； whose perfection consists in making
it as productive； economical； and as well furnished and managed as
possible 。 Even with this secondary and subordinate aim； the domain
of the State is scarcely to be less restricted： very few new functions
are to be attributed to it； nearly all the rest will be better
fulfilled by independent persons； or by natural or voluntary
associations。 …
Let us consider the man who works for his own benefit； the farmer； the
manufacturer； the merchant； and observe how attentive he is to his
business。 This is because his interest and pride are involved。 One
side his welfare and that of those around him is at stake； his
capital； his reputation； his social position and advancement； on the
other side； are poverty； ruin； social degradation； dependence；
bankruptcy and the alms…house。 In the presence of this alternative he
keeps close watch and becomes industrious； he thinks of his business
even when abed or at his meals； he studies it； not from a distance；
speculatively； in a general way； but on the spot； practically； in
detail； in all its bearings and relationships； constantly calculating
difficulties and resources； with such sharp insight and special
information that for any other person to try to solve the daily
problem which he solves； would be impossible； because nobody could
possess or estimate as he can the precise elements which constitute
it。 … Compare with this unique devotion and these peculiar
qualifications the ordinary capacity and listless regularity of a
senior public official； even when expert and honest。 He is sure of
his salary； provided he does his duty tolerably well； and this he does
when he is occupied during official hours。 Let his papers be correct；
in conformity with regulations and custom； and nothing more is asked
of him； he need not tax his brain beyond that。 If he conceives any
economical measure； or any improvement of his branch of the service；
not he； but the public； an anonymous and vague impersonality； reaps
all the benefit of it。 Moreover； why should he care about it； since
his project or reform might end up in the archives。 The machine is
too vast and complicated； too unwieldy； too clumsy； with its rusty
wheels； its 〃 old customs and acquired rights；〃 to be renewed and
rebuilt as one might a farm； a warehouse or a foundry。 Accordingly；
he has no idea of troubling himself further in the matter； on leaving
his office he dismisses it from his mind； he lets things go on
automatically； just as it happens； in a costly way and with
indifferent results。 Even in a country of as much probity as France；
it is calculated that every enterprise managed by the State costs one
quarter more； and brings in one quarter less； than when entrusted to
private hands。 Co