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in which they penetrate； and you may judge of their vigor。 Consider
the height and unlimited growth of the trees which they nourish； and
you may judge of their healthiness。 Everywhere else； one or other
having failed； in China； in the Roman Empire； in Islam； the sap has
dried downward and the tree has become stunted； or has fallen。。。。 It
is the modern man； who is neither Chinese； nor antique； nor Moslem；
nor Negro； nor savage； the man formed by Christian education and
taking refuge in his conscience as in a sanctuary； the man formed by
feudal education and entrenched behind his honor as in a fortress；
whose sanctuary and stronghold the new social contract bids him
surrender。
Now； in this democracy founded on the preponderance of numbers； into
whose hands am I required to make this surrender？ … Theoretically； to
the community； that is to say； to a crowd in which an anonymous
impulse is the substitute for individual judgment； in which action
becomes impersonal because it is collective； in which nobody
acknowledges responsibility； in which I am borne along like a grain of
sand in a whirlwind； in which all sorts of outrages are condoned
beforehand for reasons of state： practically； to the plurality of
voices counted by heads； to a majority which； over…excited by the
struggle for mastery； will abuse its victory and wrong the minority to
which I may belong； to a provisional majority which； sooner or later；
will be replaced by another； so that if I am to…day oppressor I am
sure of being oppressed to…morrow； still more particularly； to six or
seven hundred representatives； among who I am called upon to choose
but one。 To elect this unique mandatory I have but one vote among ten
thousand； and in helping to elect him I am only the ten…thousandth； I
do not even count for a ten…thousandth in electing the others。 And it
is these six or seven hundred strangers to me to who I give full power
to decide for me … note the expression full power … which means
unlimited power； not alone over my possessions and life； but； again；
over my conscience； with all its powers combined； that is to say； with
powers much more extensive than those I confer separately on ten
persons in whom I place the most confidence … to my legal adviser who
looks after my fortune； to the teacher of my children； to the
physician who cares for my health； to the confessor who directs my
conscience； to friends who are to serve as executors of my last will
and testament； to seconds in a duel who decide on my life； on the was
of my blood and who guard my honor。 Without reference to the
deplorable farce； so often played around the ballot…box； or to the
forced and distorted elections which put a contrary interpretation on
public sentiment； or to the official lies by which； at this very
moment； a few fanatics and madmen； who represent nobody but
themselves； assume to represent the nation；＇14＇ measure what degree of
confidence I may have； even after honest elections； in mandatories who
are thus chosen！ Frequently； I have voted for the defeated candidate；
in which case I am represented by the other who I did not want for a
representative。 In voting for the elected candidate； I did it because
I knew of no better one； and because his opponent seemed to me worse。
I have only seen him one time out of four and then fleetingly； at odd
moment； I scarcely knew more of him than the color of his coat； the
tone of his voice； and the way he has of thumping his breast。 All I
know of him is through his 〃platform；〃 vague and declamatory； through
editorials； and through drawing…room； coffee…house； or street gossip。
His title to my confidence is of the flimsiest and shallowest kind；
there is nothing to substantiate to me his integrity or competency； he
has no diploma； and no one to endorse him as has a private tutor； he
has no guarantee from the society to which he belongs； like the
physician； the priest or the lawyer。 With references as poor as these
I should hesitate to recruit him even as a domestic。 And all the more
because the class from which I am obliged to take him is almost always
that of politicians； a suspicious class； especially in countries in
which universal suffrage prevails。 This class is not recruited among
the most independent； the ablest； and the most honest； but among
voluble； scheming men； zealous charlatans； who for want of
perseverance； having failed in private careers； in situations where
one is watched too closely and too nicely weighed in the balance； have
selected roles in which the want of scrupulousness and discretion is a
force instead of a weakness； to their indelicacy and impudence the
doors of a public career stand wide open。 … Such is the august
personage into whose hands； according to the theory； I am called upon
to surrender my will； my will in full； certainly； if self…renunciation
were necessary； I should risk less in giving myself up to a king or to
an aristocracy； even hereditary； for then would my representatives be
at least recommended by their evident rank and their probable
competency。 … Democracy； in its nature and composition； is a system
in which the individual awards to his representatives the least trust
and deference； hence； it is the system in which he should entrust them
with the least power。 Conscience and honor everywhere enjoin a man to
retain for himself some portion of his independence； but nowhere is
there so little be ceded。 If a modern constitution ought to clearly
define and limit the domain of the State； it is in respect of
contemporary democracy that it ought to be the most restrictive。
III。
Origin and nature of the modern State。 … Its functions； rights and
limits。
Let us try to define these limits。 … After the turmoil of invasions
and conquest； at the height of social disintegration； amidst the
combats daily occurring between private parties； there arose in every
European community a public force ； which force； lasting for
centuries； still persists to our day。 How it was organized； through
what early stages of violence it passed； through what accidents and
struggles； and into whose hands it is now entrusted； whether
temporarily or forever； whatever the laws of its transmission； whether
by inheritance or election； is of secondary importance； the main thing
is its functions and their mode of operation。 It is essentially a
mighty sword； drawn from its scabbard and uplifted over the smaller
blades around it； with which private individuals once cut each others'
throats。 Menaced by it； the smaller blades repose in their scabbards；
they have become inert； useless； and； finally rusty； with few
exceptions； everybody save malefactors； has now lost both the habit
and the desire to use them； so that； henceforth； in this pacified
society； the public sword is so formidable that all private resistance
vanishes the moment it flashes。 … This sword is forged out of two
interests： it was necessary to have one of its m