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unique； predominates：
* The aim of the monk is to please God at any sacrifice。
* The soldier makes every sacrifice to obtain a victory。
Accordingly； each renounces every other desire and entirely abandons
himself； the monk to his rules and the soldier to his drill。 In like
manner； in the antique world； two preoccupations were of supreme
importance。 In the first place； the city had its gods who were both
its founders and protectors： it was therefore obliged to worship these
in the most reverent and particular manner； otherwise； they abandoned
it。 The neglect of any insignificant rite might offend them and ruin
it。 In the second place； there was incessant warfare； and the spoils
of war were atrocious； on a city being taken every citizen might
expect to be killed or maimed； or sold at auction； and see his
children and wife sold to the highest bidder。＇2＇ In short； the antique
city； with its acropolis of temples and its fortified citadel
surrounded by implacable and threatening enemies； resembles for us the
institution of the Knights of St。 John on their rocks at Rhodes or
Malta； a religious and military confraternity encamped around a
church。 … Liberty； under such conditions； is out of the question：
public convictions are too imperious； public danger is too great。
With this pressure upon him； and thus hampered； the individual gives
himself up to the community； which takes full possession of him；
because； to maintain its own existence； it needs the whole man。
Henceforth； no one may develop apart and for himself； no one may act
or think except within fixed lines。 The type of Man is distinctly and
clearly marked out； if not logically at least traditionally； each
life； as well as each portion of each life must conform to this type；
otherwise public security is compromised： any falling off in gymnastic
education weakens the army； passing the images of the gods and
neglecting the usual libation draws down celestial vengeance on the
city。 Consequently； to prevent all deviations； the State； absolute
master； exercises unlimited jurisdiction； no freedom whatever is left
to the individual； no portion of himself is reserved to himself； no
sheltered corner against the strong hand of public force； neither his
possessions； his children； his personality； his opinions or his
conscience。＇3＇ If； on voting days； he shares in the sovereignty； he is
subject all the rest of the year； even to his private sentiments。
Rome； to serve these ends； had two censors。 One of the archons of
Athens was inquisitor of the faith。 Socrates was put to death for not
believing in the gods in which the city believed。＇4＇ … In reality； not
only in Greece and in Rome； but in Egypt； in China； in India； in
Persia； in Judea； in Mexico； in Peru； during the first stages of
civilization；＇5＇ the principle of human communities is still that of
gregarious animals： the individual belongs to his community the same
as the bee to its hive and the ant to its ant…hill； he is simply an
organ within an organism。 Under a variety of structures and in
diverse applications authoritative socialism alone prevails。
Just the opposite in modern society； what was once the rule has now
become the exception； the antique system survives only in temporary
associations； like that of an army； or in special associations； as in
a convent。 Gradually； the individual has liberated himself； and
century after century； he has extended his domain and the two chains
which once bound him fast to the community； have snapped or been
lightened。
In the first place； public power has ceased to consist of a militia
protecting a cult。 In the beginning； through the institution of
Christianity； civil society and religious society have become two
distinct empires； Christ himself having separated the two
jurisdictions；
〃Render unto C？sar the things which are C？sar's； and unto God the
things that are God's。〃
Additionally； through the rise of Protestantism； the great Church is
split into numerous sects which； unable to destroy each other； have
been so compelled to live together and the State； even when preferring
one of them； has found it necessary to tolerate the others。 Finally；
through the development of Protestantism； philosophy and the sciences；
speculative beliefs have multiplied。 There are almost as many faiths
now…a…days as there are thinking men； and； as thinking men are
becoming daily more numerous； opinions are daily becoming more
numerous。 So should the State try to impose any one of these on
society； this would excite opposition from an infinity of others；
hence the wisdom in governing is found； first； in remaining neutral；
and； next； in acknowledging that it is not qualified to interfere。
In the second place； war has become less frequent and less destructive
because men have not so many motives for waging it； nor the same
motives to push it to the same extremes。 Formerly； war was the main
source of wealth； through victories Man acquired slaves； subjects and
tributaries； he turned these to the best account； he leisurely enjoyed
their forced labor。 Nothing of this kind is seen now…a…days； people
no longer think of providing themselves human cattle； they have
discovered that； of all animals； these are the most troublesome； the
least productive； and the most dangerous。 Comforts and security are
obtained much more readily through free labor and machinery； the great
object no is not to conquer； but to produce and interchange。 Every
day； man； pressing forward more eagerly in civil careers； is less
disposed to put up with any obstacle that interferes with his aims； if
he still consents to be a soldier it is not to become an invader； but
to provide against invasion。 Meanwhile； war has become more
scientific and； through the complications of its machinery； more
costly； the State can no longer call out and enlist for life every
able…bodied man without ruining itself； nor put too many obstacles in
the way of the free industry which； through taxation； provides for its
expenses； however short…sighted the State may be； it consults civil
interests； even in its military interest。 … Thus； of the two nets in
which it has enveloped all human activity； one is rent asunder and the
other has slackened its meshes。 There is no longer any reason for
making the community omnipotent； the individual need not alienate
himself entirely； he may； without inconvenience； reserve to himself a
part of himself； and； if now called upon to sign a social contract；
you may be sure that he would make this reservation。
II
Changed minds。 … Conscience and its Christian origin。 … Honor and
its feudal origin。 … The individual of to…day refuses to surrender
himself entirely。 … His motives。 … Additional motives in modern
democracy。 … Character of the elective process and the quality of the
representative。
And so have not only outward circumstances changed； but the very human
attitud